Cancer List

Cancer

• Nephroblastoma
• Hodgkin's Lymphoma
• Bone Cancer
• Skin Cancer
• Melanoma Tumor
• Mesothelioma Tumor
• Testicular Cancer
• Carcinoid Tumor
• Eye Cancer
• Neuroblastoma
• Lung Cancer
• Kidney Cancer
• Ovarian Cancer
• Myeloma
• Wilms Tumour
• Brain Tumors
• Bladder Cancer
• Prostate Cancer
• Cervical Cancer
• Breast Cancer

Other Categories
• Back And Neck	• Bone And Joints	• Cancer	• Child Health
• Eye And Vision	• Kidney And Liver	• Lungs And Chest	• Pregnancy
• Women Health

                                                                                                             

1. Nephroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is a cancer that develops from nerve cells found in several areas of the body. Neuroblastoma most commonly arises in and around the adrenal glands, which have similar origins to nerve cells and sit atop the kidneys. However, neuroblastoma can also develop in other areas of the abdomen and in the chest, neck and pelvis, where groups of nerve cells exist. Neuroblastoma most commonly affects children age 5 or younger, though it may rarely occur in older children. Some forms of neuroblastoma go away on their own, while others may require multiple treatments. Your child's neuroblastoma treatment options will depend on several factors.

Complications of Nephroblastoma

Complications of neuroblastoma may include:

• Spread of the cancer (metastasis). Neuroblastoma may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, liver, skin and bones.
• Spinal cord compression. Tumors may grow and press on the spinal cord, causing spinal cord compression. Spinal cord compression may cause pain and paralysis.
• Signs and symptoms caused by tumor secretions. Neuroblastomas may secrete certain chemicals that irritate other normal tissues, causing signs and symptoms called paraneoplastic syndromes. One paraneoplastic syndrome that occurs rarely in people with neuroblastoma causes rapid eye movements and difficulty with coordination. Another rare syndrome causes abdominal swelling and diarrhea.

Causes of Nephroblastoma

• In general, cancer begins with a genetic mutation that allows normal, healthy cells to continue growing without responding to the signals to stop, which normal cells do. Cancer cells grow and multiply out of control. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells may invade nearby tissues and can break off from an initial tumor to spread elsewhere in the body (metastasize).
• Neuroblastoma begins in neuroblasts — immature nerve cells that a fetus makes as part of its development process. As the fetus matures, neuroblasts eventually turn into nerve cells and fibers and the cells that make up the adrenal glands. The majority of neuroblasts mature by birth, though studies have found a small number of immature neuroblasts in newborns. In most cases, these neuroblasts will mature or disappear. Others, however, form a tumor — a neuroblastoma.
• It isn't clear what causes the initial genetic mutation that leads to neuroblastoma. However, because neuroblastoma usually affects very young children, researchers believe the mutation occurs during pregnancy or soon after birth.

Signs & Symptoms of Nephroblastoma
Signs and symptoms of neuroblastoma vary depending on what part of the body is affected.
Neuroblastoma in the abdomen — the most common form — may cause signs and symptoms such as:

• Abdominal pain
• A mass under the skin that isn't tender when touched
• Changes in bowel habits, such as diarrhea
• Swelling in the legs

Neuroblastoma in the chest may cause signs and symptoms such as:

• Wheezing
• Chest pain
• Changes to the eyes, including drooping eyelids and unequal pupil size

Other signs and symptoms that may indicate neuroblastoma include:

• Lumps of tissue under the skin
• Eyeballs that seem to protrude from the sockets (proptosis)
• Dark circles, similar to bruises, around the eyes
• Back pain
• Fever
• Unexplained weight loss
• Bone pain

Diagnosis of Nephroblastoma
Tests and procedures used to diagnose neuroblastoma include:

• Physical exam. Your child's doctor conducts a physical exam to check out any signs and symptoms. The doctor will ask you questions about your child's habits and behaviors.
• Urine and blood tests in children. These may indicate the cause of any signs and symptoms your child is experiencing. Urine tests may be used to check for high levels of certain chemicals that result from the neuroblastoma cells producing excess catecholamines.
• Imaging tests. Imaging tests may reveal a mass that can indicate a tumor. Imaging tests may include X-ray, ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT) scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), among others.
• Removing a sample of tissue for testing. If a mass is found, your child's doctor may want to remove a sample of the tissue for laboratory testing (biopsy). Specialized tests on the tissue sample can reveal what types of cells are involved in the tumor and specific genetic characteristics of the cancer cells. This information helps your child's doctor devise an individualized treatment plan.
• Removing a sample of bone marrow for testing. Your child may also undergo bone marrow biopsy and bone marrow aspiration procedures to see if neuroblastoma has spread to the bone marrow — the spongy material inside the largest bones where blood cells are formed. In order to remove bone marrow for testing, the surgeon inserts a needle into your child's hipbone or lower back and draws out the marrow.

Treatments of Nephroblastoma
Your child's doctor selects a treatment plan based on several factors that affect your child's prognosis. Factors include your child's age, the stage of the cancer, the type of cells involved in the cancer, and whether there are any abnormalities in the chromosomes and genes. Using this information, your child's doctor categorizes the cancer as low risk, intermediate risk or high risk. What treatment or combination of treatments your child receives for neuroblastoma depends on the risk category.
Surgery
Surgeons use scalpels and other surgical tools to remove cancer cells. In children with low-risk neuroblastoma, surgery to remove the tumor may be the only treatment needed. Whether the tumor can be completely removed depends on its location and its size. Tumors that are attached to nearby vital organs — such as the lungs or the spinal cord — may be too risky to remove. In intermediate-risk and high-risk neuroblastoma, surgeons may try to remove as much of the tumor as possible. Other treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiation, may then be used to kill remaining cancer cells.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses chemicals to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy targets rapidly growing cells in the body, including cancer cells. Unfortunately, chemotherapy also damages healthy cells that grow quickly, such as cells in the hair follicles and in the gastrointestinal system, which can cause side effects. Children with low-risk neuroblastoma that can't be removed surgically may undergo chemotherapy. Sometimes chemotherapy is administered before surgery (neoadjuvant chemotherapy) to shrink the tumor to a size that's more easily removed. In other cases, chemotherapy may be the only treatment. Children with intermediate-risk neuroblastoma often receive a combination of chemotherapy drugs before surgery to improve the chances that the entire tumor can be removed. Children with high-risk neuroblastoma usually receive high doses of chemotherapy drugs to shrink the tumor and to kill any cancer cells that have spread elsewhere in the body. Chemotherapy is usually used before surgery and before bone marrow stem cell transplant.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high doses of energy particles to destroy cancer cells. Radiation therapy primarily affects the area where it's aimed. Your child's radiation therapy team tries to protect the healthy cells near the cancer, but some healthy cells may be damaged by the radiation. What side effect your child experiences depend on where the radiation is directed and how much radiation is administered. Children with low-risk or intermediate-risk neuroblastoma may receive radiation therapy if surgery and chemotherapy haven't been helpful. Children with high-risk neuroblastoma may receive radiation therapy after chemotherapy and surgery, to prevent cancer from recurring.
Stem cell transplant
Children with high-risk neuroblastoma may receive a transplant using their own blood stem cells (autologous stem cell transplant). The bone marrow produces stem cells, which mature and develop into the red and white cells and platelets that make up the blood. Your child undergoes a procedure that filters and collects stem cells from his or her blood. Then high doses of chemotherapy are used to kill any remaining cancer cells in your child's body. Your child's stem cells are then injected into your child's body, where they can form new, healthy blood cells.
Long-term and late side effects of cancer treatment
As more and more children are surviving cancer and living into adulthood, doctors are increasingly aware of the long-term side effects of cancer treatment. Doctors recommend childhood cancer survivors be seen regularly by a doctor who understands the long-term and late side effects that can affect children after cancer treatment. Side effects vary depending on treatment, but may include impaired growth, thyroid problems, second cancers and infertility, which may be caused by chemotherapy drugs. Difficulty thinking and trouble processing thoughts may be long-term side effects of radiation, especially brain radiation or total body irradiation.
When to seek Medical Advice
Contact your child's doctor if your child has any signs or symptoms that worry you. Mention any changes in your child's behavior or habits.

2. Hodgkin's Lymphoma

Hodgkin's lymphoma is a cancer of lymph tissue found in the lymph nodes, spleen, liver, bone marrow, and other sites.

Complications of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

• Inability to have children (infertility)
• Liver failure
• Lung problems
• Other cancers
• Side effects of radiation and chemotherapy

Chemotherapy can cause low blood cell counts, which can lead to an increased risk of bleeding, infection, and anemia. To minimize bleeding, apply ice and pressure to any external bleeding. Use a soft toothbrush and electric razor for personal hygiene. Infection should always be taken seriously during cancer treatment. Contact your doctor immediately if you develop fever or other signs of infection. Planning daily activities with scheduled rest periods may help prevent fatigue associated with anemia.
Causes of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma

• The first sign of this cancer is often an enlarged lymph node which appears without a known cause. The disease can spread to nearby lymph nodes. Later it may spread to the spleen, liver, bone marrow, or other organs.
• The cause is not known. Hodgkin's lymphoma is most common among people ages 15 - 35 and 50 - 70. Infection with the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is thought to contribute to most cases.

Signs & Symptoms of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Hodgkin's lymphoma signs and symptoms may include:

• Painless swelling of lymph nodes in your neck, armpits or groin
• Persistent fatigue
• Fever and chills
• Night sweats
• Unexplained weight loss — as much as 10 percent or more of your body weight
• Coughing, trouble breathing or chest pain
• Loss of appetite
• Itching
• Increased sensitivity to the effects of alcohol or pain in your lymph nodes after drinking alcohol

Diagnosis of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Because the symptoms of Hodgkin's lymphoma are similar to those of other disorders, such as influenza, the disease can be difficult to diagnose. Some distinctive characteristics help diagnose Hodgkin's lymphoma, and these include:

• Orderly spread to lymph nodes. The pattern of spread is orderly, progressing from one group of lymph nodes to the next.
• Only rare 'skipping' of lymph nodes. The disease rarely skips over an area of lymph nodes as it spreads.

These tests and procedures help diagnose Hodgkin's lymphoma.

• Biopsy. Taking a tissue sample (biopsy) of an enlarged lymph node is the most common way to make a definite diagnosis. Once a sample is removed, the tissue is examined for malignant cells.
• Physical exam. Your doctor checks for swollen lymph nodes, including in your neck, underarm and groin, as well as a swollen spleen or liver.
• X-rays. These pictures can reveal swollen lymph nodes in the body.
• Computerized tomography (CT) scan. This is a series of pictures of the inside of your body, usually the chest, abdomen and pelvis. You usually swallow a dye or it's injected into your veins so that your organs and tissues will show up more clearly.
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). A device that uses a magnet, radio waves and computer provides your doctor with a series of detailed pictures of the inside of your body.
• Positron emission tomography (PET) scan. A small amount of radioactive glucose (sugar) is injected into your vein. Glucose becomes more concentrated around cancerous cells, so when a scanner takes pictures of your body it can reveal where the cancer is located.
• Bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. A small amount of bone marrow, blood and bone are removed through a needle and are examined for signs of cancer.
• Blood tests. A sample of your blood is examined in a lab to see if anything in your blood indicates the possibility of cancer.

Treatments of Hodgkin’s Lymphoma
Treatment primarily depends on the following:

• The type of Hodgkin's lymphoma (most people have classic Hodgkin's)
• The stage (where the disease is found)
• Whether the tumor is more than 4 inches (10 cm) wide
• The patient's age and other medical issues
• Other factors, including weight loss, night sweats, and fever

A staging evaluation is necessary to determine the treatment plan.

• Stage I indicates one lymph node region is involved (for example, the right neck).
• Stage II indicates involvement of two lymph node areas on the same side of the diaphragm (for example, both sides of the neck).
• Stage III indicates lymph node involvement on both sides of the diaphragm (for example, groin and armpit).
• Stage IV involves the spread of cancer outside the lymph nodes (for example, to bone marrow, lungs, or liver).

Treatment varies with the stage of the disease. The best treatment for an individual patient depends on many factors, and should be discussed with a doctor who has experience treating this disease.

1. Stages I and II (limited disease) can be treated with local radiation therapy, chemotherapy, or a combination of both.
2. Stages III and IV (extensive disease) are treated with chemotherapy alone or a combination of radiation therapy and chemotherapy.

When to seek Medical Advice
These symptoms could be caused by numerous other conditions. But you should see a doctor for diagnosis if:

• You experience symptoms for more than two weeks.
• Your symptoms repeatedly go away and then return.

 3. Bone Cancer

Cancer that begins in the bone is called primary bone cancer. Primary bone cancer is relatively uncommon in comparison with secondary or metastatic cancer (cancer that occurs initially in another organ and then spreads to bone tissue).

Causes of Bone Cancer

It's not clear what causes most bone cancers. Doctors know bone cancer begins as an error in a cell's DNA. The error tells the cell to grow and divide in an uncontrolled way. These cells go on living, rather than dying at a set time. The accumulating mutated cells form a mass (tumor) that can invade nearby structures or spread to other areas of the body.

Types of bone cancer

Bone cancers are broken down into separate types based on the type of cell where the cancer began. Bone cancer types include:

• Osteosarcoma. Osteosarcoma begins in the bone cells. Osteosarcoma occurs most often in children and young adults.
• Chondrosarcoma. Chondrosarcoma begins in cartilage cells that are commonly found on the ends of bones. Chondrosarcoma most commonly affects older adults.
• Ewing's sarcoma. It's not clear where in bone Ewing's sarcoma begins. Scientists believe Ewing's sarcoma may begin in nerve tissue within the bone. Ewing's sarcoma occurs most often in children and young adults.

Signs & Symptoms of Bone Cancer
Signs and symptoms of bone cancer include:

• Bone pain
• Swelling and tenderness near the affected area
• Weakened bones, sometimes leading to fractures
• Fatigue
• Unintended weight loss

Diagnosis of Bone Cancer

• The presenting symptom is usually pain. Pathologic fracture may be present and is more common in the lower than the upper extremity.
• The presenting radiologic finding on X-ray is often destruction of bone. In a patient with a known primary malignant tumor presenting with a painful, destructive lesion of bone, a diagnosis of metastatic cancer can be made with some assurance. However, there are individuals in whom the primary cancer is not yet recognized at the time when the early metastatic lesion in bone becomes painful.
• A CAT scan, MRI, radionuclide bone scan or a skeletal survey may be done to pinpoint which bones have been affected.

Treatments of Bone Cancer
The treatment options for your bone cancer are based on the type of cancer you have, the stage of the cancer, your overall health and your preferences. Bone cancer treatment typically involves surgery, chemotherapy, radiation or a combination of treatments.
Surgery
The goal of surgery is to remove the entire bone cancer. To accomplish this, doctors remove the tumor and a small portion of healthy tissue that surrounds it. Types of surgery used to treat bone cancer include:

• Surgery to remove a limb. Bone cancers that are large or located in a complicated point on the bone may require surgery to remove all or part of a limb (amputation). As other treatments have been developed, this procedure is becoming less common. You'll likely be fitted with an artificial limb after surgery and will go through training to learn to do everyday tasks using your new limb.
• Surgery to remove the cancer, but spare the limb. If a bone cancer can be separated from nerves and other tissue, the surgeon may be able to remove the bone cancer and spare the limb. Since some of the bone is removed with the cancer, the surgeon replaces the lost bone with some bone from another area of your body or with a special metal prosthesis. Intense rehabilitative therapy may be necessary after limb-sparing surgery in order for the affected arm or leg to become fully functional.
• Surgery for cancer that doesn't affect the limbs. If bone cancer occurs in bones other than those of the arms and legs, surgeons may remove the bone and some surrounding tissue, such as in cancer that affects a rib, or may remove the cancer while preserving as much of the bone as possible, such as in cancer that affects the spine. Bone removed during surgery can be replaced with a piece of bone from another area of the body or with a special metal prosthesis.

Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-powered beams of energy, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. During radiation therapy, you lie on a table while a special machine moves around you and aims the energy beams at precise points on your body. Radiation therapy may be used to shrink a bone cancer to increase the likelihood that a surgeon can remove the entire cancer with surgery. In this situation, radiation therapy may be combined with chemotherapy. Radiation therapy may also be used in people with bone cancer that can't be removed with surgery. Radiation therapy may also be used after surgery to kill any cancer cells that may be left behind. For people with advanced bone cancer, radiation therapy may help control signs and symptoms, such as pain.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses chemicals to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy is most often given through a vein (intravenously). The chemotherapy medications travel throughout your body. Chemotherapy is often used before surgery, usually in combination with radiation therapy, to shrink a bone cancer to a more manageable size that allows the surgeon to use a limb-sparing surgery. Chemotherapy may also be used in people with bone cancer that has spread beyond the bone to other areas of the body.
When to seek Medical Advice
Make an appointment with your doctor if you or your child develops signs and symptoms that worry you.

 

4. Skin Cancer

Skin cancer — the abnormal growth of skin cells — most often develops on skin exposed to the sun. But this common form of cancer can also occur on areas of your skin not ordinarily exposed to sunlight. There are three major types of skin cancer — basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma and melanoma. You can reduce your risk of skin cancer by limiting or avoiding exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Checking your skin for suspicious changes can help detect skin cancer at its earliest stages. Early detection of skin cancer gives you the greatest chance for successful skin cancer treatment.

Causes of Skin Cancer

Skin cancer occurs when errors (mutations) form the in the DNA of healthy skin cells. The mutations cause the cells to grow out of control and form a mass of cancer cells.

Cells involved in skin cancer

Skin cancer begins in your skin's top layer — the epidermis. The epidermis is a thin layer that provides a protective cover of skin cells that your body continually sheds. The epidermis contains three main types of cells:

• Squamous cells lie just below the outer surface and function as the skin's inner lining.
• Basal cells, which produce new skin cells, sit beneath the squamous cells.
• Melanocytes — which produce melanin, the pigment that gives skin its normal color — are located in the lower part of your epidermis. Melanocytes produce more melanin when you're in the sun to help protect the deeper layers of your skin. Extra melanin produces the darker color of tanned skin.

Where your skin cancer begins determines its type and your treatment options.
Ultraviolet light and other potential causes
Much of the damage to DNA in skin cells results from ultraviolet (UV) radiation found in sunlight and in commercial tanning lamps and tanning beds. But sun exposure doesn't explain skin cancers that develop on skin not ordinarily exposed to sunlight. This indicates that other factors may contribute to your risk of skin cancer, such as being exposed to toxic substances or having a condition that weakens your immune system.
Signs & Symptoms of Skin Cancer
Where skin cancer develops
Skin cancer develops primarily on areas of sun-exposed skin, including the scalp, face, lips, ears, neck, chest, arms and hands, and on the legs in women. But it can also form on areas that rarely see the light of day — your palms, beneath your fingernails, the spaces between your toes or under your toenails, and your genital area. Skin cancer affects people of all skin tones, including those with darker complexions. When melanoma occurs in those with dark skin tones, it's more likely to occur in areas not normally considered to be sun-exposed.
Basal cell carcinoma signs and symptoms
Basal cell carcinoma usually occurs in sun-exposed areas of your body, such as your face, ears or scalp. Basal cell carcinoma may appear as:

• A pearly or waxy bump
• A flat, flesh-colored or brown scar-like lesion

Squamous cell carcinoma signs and symptoms
Most often, squamous cell carcinoma occurs on sun-exposed areas of your body, such as your face, lips, ears and hands. Squamous cell carcinoma may appear as:

• A firm, red nodule
• A flat lesion with a scaly, crusted surface

Melanoma signs and symptoms
Melanoma can develop anywhere on your body, in otherwise normal skin or in an existing mole that becomes cancerous. Melanoma most often appears on the trunk, head or neck of affected men. In women, this type of cancer most often develops on the lower legs. In both men and women, melanoma can occur on skin that hasn't been exposed to the sun. Melanoma can affect people of any skin tone. In people with darker skin tones, melanoma tends to occur on the palms or soles, or under the fingernails or toenails.
Melanoma signs include:

• A large brownish spot with darker speckles
• A mole that changes in color, size or feel or that bleeds
• A small lesion with an irregular border and portions that appear red, white, blue or blue-black
• Dark lesions on your palms, soles, fingertips or toes, or on mucous membranes lining your mouth, nose, vagina or anus

Signs and symptoms of less common skin cancers
Other, less common types of skin cancer include:

• Kaposi sarcoma. This rare form of skin cancer develops in the skin's blood vessels and causes red or purple patches on the skin or mucous membranes. Kaposi sarcoma mainly occurs in people with weakened immune systems, such as people with AIDS, and in people taking medications that suppress their natural immunity, such as people who've undergone organ transplants. Kaposi sarcoma can also occur in older adults of Mediterranean heritage.
• Merkel cell carcinoma. Merkel cell carcinoma causes firm, shiny nodules that occur on or just beneath the skin and in hair follicles. Merkel cell carcinoma is usually found on sun-exposed areas on the head, neck, arms and legs.
• Sebaceous gland carcinoma. This uncommon and aggressive cancer originates in the oil glands in the skin. Sebaceous gland carcinomas — which usually appear as hard, painless nodules — can develop anywhere, but most occur on the eyelid, where they're frequently mistaken for other eyelid problems.

Diagnosis of Skin Cancer
Diagnosing skin cancer
To diagnose skin cancer, your doctor may:

• Examine your skin. Your doctor may look at your skin to determine whether your skin changes are likely to be skin cancer. Further testing may be needed to confirm that diagnosis.
• Remove a sample of suspicious skin for testing (skin biopsy). Your doctor may remove a small sample of suspicious-looking skin for laboratory testing. A biopsy can determine whether you have skin cancer and, if so, what type of skin cancer you have.

Determining the extent of the skin cancer
If your doctor determines you have skin cancer, he or she may recommend additional tests to determine the extent, or stage, of the skin cancer. Because superficial skin cancers such as basal or squamous cell carcinoma rarely spread, a biopsy often is the only test needed to determine the cancer stage. But if you have a large growth or one that's existed for some time, your doctor may recommend further tests to determine the extent of the cancer.
Skin cancer is generally divided into two stages:

• Local. In this stage, cancer affects only the skin.
• Metastatic. At this point, cancer has spread beyond the skin.

The skin cancer's stage helps determine which treatment options will be most effective.
Treatments of Skin Cancer
Treatment for skin cancer and the precancerous skin lesions known as actinic keratoses varies, depending on the size, type, depth and location of the lesions. Small skin cancers limited to the surface of the skin may not require treatment beyond an initial skin biopsy that removes the entire growth.
If additional treatment is needed, options may include:

• Freezing. Your doctor may destroy actinic keratoses and some small, early skin cancers by freezing them with liquid nitrogen (cryosurgery). The dead tissue sloughs off when it thaws.
• Excisional surgery. This type of treatment may be appropriate for any type of skin cancer. Your doctor cuts out (excises) the cancerous tissue and a surrounding margin of healthy skin. A wide excision — removing extra normal skin around the tumor — may be recommended in some cases.
• Laser therapy. A precise, intense beam of light vaporizes growths, generally with little damage to surrounding tissue and with minimal bleeding, swelling and scarring. A doctor may use this therapy to treat superficial skin cancers.
• Mohs surgery. This procedure is for larger, recurring or difficult-to-treat skin cancers, which may include both basal and squamous cell carcinomas. Your doctor removes the skin growth layer by layer, examining each layer under the microscope, until no abnormal cells remain. This procedure allows cancerous cells to be removed without taking an excessive amount of surrounding healthy skin.
• Curettage and electrodesiccation. After removing most of a growth, your doctor scrapes away layers of cancer cells using a circular blade (curet). An electric needle destroys any remaining cancer cells. This simple, quick procedure is common in treating small or thin basal cell cancers.
• Radiation therapy. Radiation may be used in situations when surgery isn't an option.
• Chemotherapy. In chemotherapy, drugs are used to kill cancer cells. For cancers limited to the top layer of skin, creams or lotions containing anti-cancer agents may be applied directly to the skin. Topical drugs can cause severe inflammation and leave scars. Systemic chemotherapy can be used to treat skin cancers that have spread to other parts of the body.
• Photodynamic therapy (PDT). This treatment destroys skin cancer cells with a combination of laser light and drugs that makes cancer cells sensitive to light. PDT makes your skin sensitive to light, so you will need to avoid direct sunlight for at least six weeks after treatment.
• Biological therapy. Biological treatments stimulate your immune system in order to kill cancer cells. Biological therapy medications used to treat certain skin cancer include interferon and interleukin-2.

Prevention of Skin Cancer
Most skin cancers are preventable. To protect yourself, follow these skin cancer prevention tips:

• Avoid the sun during the middle of the day. For many people in North America, the sun's rays are strongest between about 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Schedule outdoor activities for other times of the day, even in winter or when the sky is cloudy. You absorb UV radiation year-round, and clouds offer little protection from damaging rays. Remember, sunburns and suntans cause skin damage that can increase your risk of developing skin cancer. Sun exposure accumulated over time also may cause skin cancer.
• Wear sunscreen year-round. Sunscreens don't filter out all harmful UV radiation, especially the radiation that can lead to melanoma. But they play a major role in an overall sun protection program. Choose a broad-spectrum sunscreen that has a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15. Use a generous amount of sunscreen on all exposed skin, including your lips, the tips of your ears, and the backs of your hands and neck.
• Wear protective clothing. Sunscreens don't provide complete protection from UV rays. So cover your skin with dark, tightly woven clothing that covers your arms and legs, and a broad-brimmed hat, which provides more protection than a baseball cap or visor does. Some companies also sell photoprotective clothing. A dermatologist can recommend an appropriate brand. Don't forget sunglasses. Look for those that block both types of UV radiation — UVA and UVB rays.
• Avoid tanning beds. Tanning beds emit UV rays and can increase your risk of skin cancer.
• Be aware of sun-sensitizing medications. Some common prescription and over-the-counter drugs — including antibiotics; certain cholesterol, high blood pressure and diabetes medications; and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, others) — can make your skin more sensitive to sunlight. Ask your doctor or pharmacist about the side effects of any medications you take. If they increase your sensitivity to sunlight, take extra precautions to stay out of the sun in order to protect your skin.
• Check your skin regularly and report changes to your doctor. Examine your skin often for new skin growths or changes in existing moles, freckles, bumps and birthmarks. With the help of mirrors, check your face, neck, ears and scalp. Examine your chest and trunk, and the tops and undersides of your arms and hands. Examine both the front and back of your legs, and your feet, including the soles and the spaces between your toes. Also check your genital area and between your buttocks.

When to seek Medical Advice
Make an appointment with your doctor if you notice any changes to your skin that worry you. Not all skin changes are caused by skin cancer. Your doctor will investigate your skin changes to determine a cause.

5. Eye Cancer

Melanoma develops in the cells that produce melanin — the pigment that gives your skin its color. Your eyes also have melanin-producing cells and can develop melanoma. Eye melanoma is also called ocular melanoma. Melanoma that originates in your eye is termed a primary eye cancer. Eye melanoma is the most common type of primary eye cancer in adults, but it's rare. If the melanoma begins elsewhere, such as your lung or breast, and then spreads to your eye, it's called a secondary eye cancer. Treatment is available for eye melanoma, and the earlier it's detected, the better your chance for successful treatment. Getting regular eye exams can help your doctor detect eye melanoma at an earlier stage.

Alternative Names of Eye Cancer are: Eye Melanoma.

Causes of Eye Cancer

• The exact cause of eye melanoma, also called ocular melanoma, isn't known. Scientists believe that DNA plays a role in causing cells to become cancerous. DNA instructs the behavior of cells, so defects (mutations) in DNA can cause cells to malfunction, sometimes resulting in cancer. Sometimes these mutations are inherited, but they may also be acquired during life.
• Although researchers have found an association with eye cancer and certain genetic changes, they haven't yet pinpointed why these changes occur, or even if these changes definitively cause cancer.
• Eye melanoma most commonly develops in the uvea, the vascular layer of your eye sandwiched between the retina, the thin layer of tissue that lines the back inner wall of your eyeball, and the white of your eye (sclera). Eye melanoma can occur in the front part of the uvea (iris and ciliary body) or in the back part of the uvea (choroid layer).

Signs & Symptoms of Eye Cancer
You may experience no symptoms at all for melanoma of the eye. On the other hand, eye melanomas may cause light flashes, blurring or a dark spot in your vision.
Signs and symptoms to watch for include:

• A growing dark spot on the iris
• A sensation of flashing lights
• Poor or blurry vision in one eye
• Loss of side (peripheral) vision in the affected eye
• Floaters — spots or squiggles drifting in your field of vision
• A displacement of your eye within the eye socket

Diagnosis of Eye Cancer
Having a regular examination of your eyes by a physician eye specialist (ophthalmologist) is the first and most important step in early detection and diagnosis of eye melanoma. Your doctor will examine the outside of your eye, looking for enlarged blood vessels that can indicate a tumor inside your eye. Then, with the help of instruments, your doctor will look inside your eye. One method, called ophthalmoscopy, uses lenses and a bright light mounted on your doctor's forehead — a bit like a miner's lamp. Another method, called slit-lamp biomicroscopy, uses a microscope that produces an intense beam or line of light to illuminate the interior of your eye. In most cases, looking inside your eye alone will be enough to detect and diagnose any tumors or other abnormalities.
Further evaluation of suspected melanoma
If your doctor suspects you may have eye melanoma; you may undergo one of a number of imaging tests:

• Ultrasound. This painless procedure uses high-frequency sound waves from a hand-held, wand-like apparatus called a transducer, which can produce precise images of structures within your body. It's an important test for diagnosing and evaluating eye tumors. Eye melanomas often have a characteristic appearance on the ultrasound. Your doctor also uses ultrasound to measure the thickness of the tumor to help determine the most appropriate treatment. The initial ultrasound further provides a baseline measurement for comparison as you go through your treatment plan. In this test you sit in a chair in your doctor's office. The transducer is placed against either your eyelid or the front surface of your eye, in which case your eye is numbed with anesthetizing drops. A lubricant placed on the transducer may run down your cheek, but the procedure itself doesn't cause discomfort or pain. There may be some discomfort after the procedure has been completed if the surface of the cornea becomes scratched during the test, but this usually gets better within hours.
• Angiography. Angiography is a process that uses dyes to help your doctor better visualize parts of your body. In a procedure called fluorescein angiography, your doctor injects a yellow dye into a vein in your arm. The dye circulates in your eyes, highlighting the blood vessels in your retina and providing information about the characteristics of the tumor. A camera with special filters takes flash pictures every few seconds for several minutes, providing your doctor with useful images. Another procedure called indocyanine green angiography involves injecting a green dye. Again, using special filters, your doctor can obtain useful images that may help define the characteristics of a tumor.

Treatments of Eye Cancer
After eye melanoma is diagnosed, you and your doctor will review your treatment options. Factors to be considered are the location and size of the melanoma, as well as your overall physical health. Some doctors may also consider the genetics of the tumor (cytogenetics) when deciding on the best treatment course. However, this is a topic currently being debated in the medical community and some experts feel that more studies are needed to determine the best type of profiling for predicting tumor behavior and outcomes. Melanomas of the eye are rare, so it's a good idea to find a doctor with experience in treating these cancers. In addition, a second opinion can provide more information and help you feel more confident about your treatment plan. Sometimes, doctors suggest observing a small lesion rather than treating it right away. But your doctor will generally recommend treatment for a medium-sized or large-sized melanoma. Treatment designed to destroy a melanoma often will cause some loss of vision, even though every effort is made to preserve vision. But because cancers of the eye can be fatal, in some cases you'll need treatment even if it means loss of vision or loss of your eye. Surgery is the foundation for most eye cancer treatments. If an eye melanoma is of a certain size and in a favorable location, treatment can sometimes be accomplished with surgery alone. Treatment for other eye melanomas may be done with radiation alone, or radiation combined with a therapy such as infrared laser.
Surgery
Depending on the characteristics of the tumor, your doctor may choose from a variety of surgical procedures to remove the melanoma:

• Iridectomy. This procedure removes only a part of the iris. It's used for small iris melanomas that have not invaded other structures of your eye.
• Iridotrabeculectomy. This procedure removes parts of the iris and the supporting tissues around the cornea at the base of the iris for small iris melanomas that have invaded those tissues.
• Iridocyclectomy. This is another treatment for small melanomas of the iris and ciliary body. It involves removing part of the iris and the ciliary body.
• Choroidectomy. Part of the choroid is removed during this surgery, with or without removing part of the wall of the eye (sclerouvectomy). This complicated procedure may be followed by supplementary radiation.
• Enucleation. This surgery removes the entire eye. This procedure is used for large eye tumors when alternative treatments would destroy most of the eye anyway. It may also be used if the tumor is causing eye pain. An implant is inserted into the position where the eye was previously located, and the muscles controlling movement of the eye are attached to it, which will allow the implant to move. After your eye has had some time to heal, an artificial eye (prosthesis) is made. The front surface of your new eye will be custom painted to match your existing eye, and the back surface will be custom molded so it fits comfortably. Motion from the implant is transferred through the healed tissue to the prosthetic eye, which in most cases provides a satisfactory cosmetic appearance. You can wear the prosthetic eye all the time and even sleep with it in place, but you'll have to remove it once or twice a year for polishing.

Radiation therapy
Carefully targeted and regulated doses of high-energy radiation — radiation therapy — can destroy ocular melanoma and be lifesaving. Radiation therapy damages cells by destroying the genetic material that controls how cells grow and divide. And although both healthy and cancerous cells are damaged by radiation, the goal of treatment is to hurt as few normal, healthy cells as possible. Doctors generally reserve radiation treatment for eye melanomas to medium-sized and large-sized melanomas, although selected small-sized melanomas may sometimes be treated with radiation. The radiation dose can be delivered with charged particles such as proton beams, which are generated from outside of your body and directed into your eye (teletherapy). Or, the radiation can come from small radioactive seeds that are temporarily anchored to your eye (brachytherapy). In brachytherapy, a small implant (plaque) similar to a bottle cap and containing several radioactive seeds (usually iodine 125 seeds) is sutured to the wall of your eye at a site overlying the tumor. The plaque remains in place for four to five days until it has delivered an optimal amount of radiation for the characteristics of your tumor.  The device is then removed, and your doctor will monitor the tumor at regular intervals to watch for tumor shrinkage.
Small eye melanomas
There has been a recent trend toward treating small eye melanomas with either radiation therapy or transpupillary thermotherapy (TTT) — a type of infrared laser therapy — or both. Destroying the cancerous tissue by freezing it (cryotherapy) also has been used for some small eye melanomas.
Prevention of Eye Cancer
While no direct link has been established between sun exposure and eye melanoma, an association has been found. Because of this, some doctors recommend regular use of UV-blocking sunglasses as a possible preventive measure.
When to seek Medical Advice

• Some types of eye melanomas can be detected only by an eye doctor, so it's a good idea to have regular, routine eye examinations. Because this type of cancer is rare, there's no screening test other than an eye examination.
• If you observe a dark spot on your iris that is enlarging, have a doctor examine it. Many doctors believe that skin and eye melanomas start from a mole (nevus). If you have a nevus or a freckle in your eye, have it checked regularly by an eye doctor.

6. Carcinoid Tumor

Carcinoid tumors are a slow-growing type of cancer that can arise in several places throughout your body. Carcinoid tumors usually appear in the gastrointestinal tract (appendix, stomach, small intestine, colon, and rectum) and in the lungs. But, carcinoid tumors can also begin in other organs, including the ovaries and testes. Carcinoid tumors rarely cause signs and symptoms until late in the disease. Carcinoid tumors can produce and release hormones into your body that cause signs and symptoms such as diarrhea or skin flushing.

Complications of Carcinoid Tumor

The cells of carcinoid tumors can secrete hormones and other chemicals into your body, causing a range of complications, including:

• Stomach ulcers. Carcinoid tumors, particularly those in the stomach, can secrete a hormone that increases acid in the stomach, which can lead to ulcers.
• Carcinoid syndrome. Carcinoid syndrome causes redness or a feeling of warmth in your face and neck (skin flushing), chronic diarrhea, and difficulty breathing, among other signs and symptoms.
• Carcinoid heart disease. Carcinoid tumors may secrete hormones that can cause thickening of the lining of heart chambers, valves and blood vessels. This can lead to leaky heart valves, an enlarged heart and heart failure. Carcinoid heart disease can usually be controlled with medications and surgery.
• Cushing's syndrome. A lung carcinoid tumor can produce an excess of a hormone that can cause your body to produce too much of the hormone cortisol.
• Acromegaly. Another hormone secreted by some lung carcinoid tumors can cause this rare hormone disorder. Acromegaly causes bones to increase in size, including the hands, feet and face.

Causes of Carcinoid Tumor

Cancer occurs when a cell develops a mutation in its DNA. The mutation allows the cell to continue growing and dividing when healthy cells would normally die. In the case of carcinoid tumors, the accumulating cells form a mass. Cancer cells can invade nearby healthy tissue and spread to other parts of the body. It's not clear what causes the mutations that can lead to carcinoid tumors. Carcinoid tumors develop from cells in the neuroendocrine system, a part of your body that has many functions, including production of certain hormones. These cells also have characteristics similar to nerve cells.

Signs & Symptoms of Carcinoid Tumor

In many cases, carcinoid tumors don't cause any signs or symptoms. When they do occur, signs and symptoms are usually vague and depend on the location of the tumor. Signs and symptoms of carcinoid tumors may include:

• Abdominal pain
• Bowel obstruction
• Changes in bowel movements
• Chest pain
• Diarrhea
• Difficulty breathing
• Rectal bleeding
• Rectal pain
• Recurrent pneumonia
• Redness or a feeling of warmth in your face and neck (skin flushing)

Diagnosis of Carcinoid Tumor
Tests and procedures used to diagnose carcinoid tumors include:

• Blood test. If you have a carcinoid tumor, your blood may contain high levels of a protein caused by hormones secreted by a carcinoid tumor.
• Urine test. People with carcinoid tumors have excess levels of a chemical in their urine that's produced when the body breaks down hormones secreted by carcinoid tumors.
• Imaging tests. Imaging tests, including a computerized tomography (CT) scan, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET), ultrasound, octreotide scan and X-ray, may help your doctor pinpoint the carcinoid tumor's location.
• Using a scope or camera to see inside your body. Your doctor may use a long, thin tube equipped with a lens or camera to examine areas inside your body. An endoscopy, which involves passing a scope down your throat, may help your doctor see inside your gastrointestinal tract. Bronchoscopy, using a scope passed down your throat and into your lungs, can help find lung carcinoid tumors. Passing a scope through your rectum (colonoscopy) can help diagnose rectal carcinoid tumors. To see inside your small intestine, your doctor may recommend a test using a pill-sized camera that you swallow (capsule endoscopy).
• Biopsy. A sample of tissue from the tumor (biopsy) may be collected to confirm your diagnosis. What type of biopsy you'll undergo depends on where your tumor is located. In some cases a surgeon may use a needle to draw cells out of the tumor. In other cases, a biopsy may be collected during surgery. The tissue is sent to a laboratory for testing to determine the types of cells in the tumor and how aggressive those cells appear under the microscope.

Treatments of Carcinoid Tumor
Treatment for a carcinoid tumor depends on the tumor's location, whether cancer has spread to other areas of the body, the types of hormones the tumor secretes, your overall health and your own preferences.
Treatments can include:
Surgery
When detected early, a carcinoid tumor may be removed completely using surgery. Most carcinoid tumors are advanced when discovered, so complete removal may not be possible. In some cases, surgeons may try to remove as much of the tumor as possible, to help control signs and symptoms. What types of operations are available to you will depend on the size and location of your carcinoid tumor.
Treatments for carcinoid tumors that have spread to the liver
Carcinoid tumors commonly spread (metastasize) to the liver. Options may include:

• Liver surgery. Surgery to remove part or all of the liver (hepatic resection) may control signs and symptoms caused by liver tumors.
• Stopping blood supply to liver tumors. Using hepatic artery embolization, a doctor can clog the liver's main artery (hepatic artery), cutting off the blood supply to cancer cells that have spread to the liver. Healthy liver cells survive by relying on blood from other blood vessels.
• Killing cancer cells with heat or cold. Radiofrequency ablation delivers heat treatments that cause carcinoid tumor cells in the liver to die. Cryoablation uses cycles of freezing and thawing to kill cancer cells.

Medications for carcinoid syndrome
Injections of medications may block tumor cells from secreting the hormones that can cause the signs and symptoms of carcinoid syndrome. Octreotide (Sandostatin) and lanreotide (Somatuline Depot) may help control flushing and diarrhea in most people with carcinoid syndrome. Both drugs are injected once a month and may cause side effects such as abdominal pain and bloating, diarrhea, and nausea. Side effects typically diminish over time.
When to seek Medical Advice
Carcinoid tumors often don't cause any signs and symptoms. If you experience any signs and symptoms that bother you and are persistent, make an appointment with your doctor.

7. Testicular Cancer

Testicular cancer occurs in the testicles (testes), which are located inside the scrotum, a loose bag of skin underneath the penis. The testicles produce male sex hormones and sperm for reproduction. Compared with other types of cancer, testicular cancer is rare. But testicular cancer is the most common cancer in American males between the ages of 15 and 34. Testicular cancer is highly treatable, even when cancer has spread beyond the testicle. Depending on the type and stage of testicular cancer, you may receive one of several treatments, or a combination. Regular testicular self-examinations can help identify growths early, when the chance for successful treatment of testicular cancer is highest.

Causes of Testicular Cancer

• It's not clear what causes testicular cancer in most cases. Doctors know that testicular cancer occurs when healthy cells in a testicle become altered. Healthy cells grow and divide in an orderly way to keep your body functioning normally. But sometimes some cells develop abnormalities, causing this growth to get out of control — these cancer cells continue dividing even when new cells aren't needed. The accumulating cells form a mass in the testicle.
• Nearly all testicular cancers begin in the germ cells — the cells in the testicles that produce immature sperm. What causes germ cells to become abnormal and develop into cancer isn't known.

Signs & Symptoms of Testicular Cancer
Signs and symptoms of testicular cancer include:

• A lump or enlargement in either testicle
• A feeling of heaviness in the scrotum
• A dull ache in the abdomen or groin
• A sudden collection of fluid in the scrotum
• Pain or discomfort in a testicle or the scrotum
• Enlargement or tenderness of the breasts
• Unexplained fatigue or a general feeling of not being well

Cancer usually affects only one testicle.
Diagnosis of Testicular Cancer
Most men discover testicular cancer themselves, either unintentionally or while doing a testicular self-examination to check for lumps. In other cases, your doctor may detect a lump during a routine physical exam.
To determine whether a lump is testicular cancer, your doctor may recommend:

• Ultrasound. A testicular ultrasound test uses sound waves to create a picture of the scrotum and testicles. During an ultrasound you lie on your back with your legs spread. Your doctor then applies a clear gel to your scrotum. A hand-held probe is moved over your scrotum to make the ultrasound image. An ultrasound test can help your doctor determine the nature of any testicular lumps, such as if the lumps are solid or fluid filled. Ultrasound also tells your doctor whether lumps are inside or outside of the testicle. Your doctor uses this information to determine whether a lump is likely to be testicular cancer.
• Blood tests. Your doctor may order tests to determine the levels of tumor markers in your blood. Tumor markers are substances that occur normally in your blood, but the levels of these substances may be elevated in certain situations, including testicular cancer. A high level of a tumor marker in your blood doesn't mean you have cancer, but it may help your doctor in determining your diagnosis.
• Surgery to remove a testicle (radical inguinal orchiectomy). If your doctor determines the lump on your testicle may be cancerous, he or she may recommend surgery to remove the testicle. Your testicle will be analyzed in a laboratory to determine if the lump is cancerous and, if so, what type of cancer.

Treatments of Testicular Cancer
The options for treating your testicular cancer depend on several factors, including the type and stage of cancer, your overall health and your own preferences. Treatment options may include:
Surgery
Surgery to remove your testicle (radical inguinal orchiectomy) is the primary treatment for nearly all stages and types of testicular cancer. To remove your testicle, your surgeon makes an incision in your groin and extracts the entire testicle through the opening. A prosthetic, saline-filled testicle can be inserted if you choose. You'll receive anesthetics during surgery. All surgical procedures carry a risk of pain, bleeding and infection.
You may also have surgery to remove the lymph nodes in your groin (retroperitoneal lymph node dissection). Sometimes this is done at the same time as surgery to remove your testicle. In other cases it can be done later. The lymph nodes are removed through a large incision in your abdomen. Your surgeon takes care to avoid severing nerves surrounding the lymph nodes, but in some cases severing the nerves may be unavoidable. Severed nerves can cause difficulty with ejaculation, but won't prevent you from having an erection. In cases of early-stage testicular cancer, surgery may be the only treatment needed. Your doctor will give you a recommended schedule for follow-up appointments. At these appointments — typically every few months for the first few years and then less frequently after that — you'll undergo blood tests, CT scans and other procedures to check for signs that your cancer has returned. If you have a more advanced testicular cancer or if you're unable to adhere closely to the recommended follow-up schedule, your doctor may recommend other treatments after surgery.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy is a treatment option that's frequently used in people who have the seminoma type of testicular cancer. Radiation therapy is also used in certain situations in people who have the nonseminoma type of testicular cancer. Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. During radiation therapy, you're positioned on a table and a large machine moves around you, aiming the energy beams at precise points on your body. Side effects may include fatigue, as well as skin redness and irritation in your abdominal and groin areas. You may experience infertility as a result of radiation therapy. However, as the treated area heals, you may regain your fertility.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy treatment uses drugs to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy drugs travel throughout your body to kill cancer cells that may have migrated from the original tumor. Your doctor might recommend chemotherapy after surgery. Chemotherapy may be used before or after lymph node removal. Side effects of chemotherapy depend on the drugs being used. Ask your doctor what to expect. Common side effects include fatigue, nausea, hair loss, infertility and an increased risk of infection. There are medications and treatments available that reduce some of the side effects of chemotherapy.
Prevention of Testicular Cancer
There's no sure way to prevent testicular cancer. Some doctors recommend regular testicle self-examinations to identify testicular cancer at its earliest stage. Not all doctors agree, though, so discuss testicular self-examination with your doctor if you're unsure about whether it's right for you. If you choose to do a testicular self-examination, a good time to examine your testicles is after a warm bath or shower. The heat from the water relaxes your scrotum, making it easier for you to find anything unusual.
To do this examination, follow these steps:

• Stand in front of a mirror. Look for any swelling on the skin of the scrotum.
• Examine each testicle with both hands. Place the index and middle fingers under the testicle while placing your thumbs on the top.
• Gently roll the testicle between the thumbs and the fingers. Remember that the testicles are usually smooth, oval shaped and somewhat firm. It's normal for one testicle to be slightly larger than the other. Also, the cord leading upward from the top of the testicle (Epididymis) is a normal part of the scrotum. By regularly performing this exam, you will become more familiar with your testicles and aware of any changes that might be of concern.
• If you find a lump, call your doctor as soon as possible. Testicular cancer is highly treatable, especially when identified early.

When to seek Medical Advice
See your doctor if you detect any pain, swelling or lumps in your testicles or groin area, especially if these signs and symptoms last longer than two weeks. Make an appointment with your doctor even if a lump in your testicle isn't painful. Only a small percentage of testicular cancers are painful from the outset.

8.Mesothelioma Tumor

Malignant mesothelioma (me-zo-thee-le-O-muh) is a rare cancer that occurs in the thin layer of tissue that covers the majority of your internal organs (mesothelium). Doctors divide mesothelioma into different types based on what part of the mesothelium is affected, including:

• Pleural malignant mesothelioma, which affects the tissue that surrounds the lungs and is the most common form of mesothelioma.
• Peritoneal mesothelioma, which occurs in the tissue in your abdomen.
• Pericardial mesothelioma, which affects the tissue surrounding the heart.
• Mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis, which occurs in the lining around the testicles.

Between 2,000 and 3,000 people are diagnosed with mesothelioma in the United States each year, according to the American Cancer Society.

Complications of Mesothelioma Tumor

Complications from spreading cancer

As pleural mesothelioma spreads in the chest, it puts pressure on the structures in that area. This can cause complications, such as:

• Difficulty breathing
• Chest pain
• Difficulty swallowing
• Swelling caused by pressure on the large vein that leads from your upper body to your heart (superior vena cava syndrome)
• Pain caused by pressure on the nerves and spinal cord
• Accumulation of fluid in the chest (pleural effusion), which can compress the lung nearby and make breathing difficult

Death

Mesothelioma that progresses can lead to death. People who die of mesothelioma usually die from related complications, such as lung failure, heart problems, stroke and other causes.

Causes of Mesothelioma Tumor

In general, cancer begins when a series of genetic mutations occur within a cell, causing the cell to grow and multiply out of control, when healthy cells would normally die. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells invade nearby tissues and can break off from an initial tumor to spread elsewhere in the body (metastasize). It isn't clear what causes the initial genetic mutations that lead to mesothelioma, though researchers have identified factors that may increase the risk. It's likely that cancers form because of an interaction between many factors, such as inherited conditions, your environment, your health conditions and your lifestyle choices.
Benign pleural mesothelioma

A form of noncancerous (benign) tumor that can occur in the chest is sometimes called benign mesothelioma. However, this name is misleading. Benign mesothelioma doesn't begin in the same cells where the cancerous forms of mesothelioma begin. And, in a minority of cases, benign mesothelioma can be very aggressive, despite the term "benign." For this reason, some doctors now refer this tumor as solitary fibrous tumor. Solitary fibrous tumor usually doesn't cause signs and symptoms. Most cases are inadvertently discovered during tests and procedures for other conditions. It isn't clear what causes solitary fibrous tumors, but they aren't linked to asbestos exposure. Treatment for solitary fibrous tumor typically includes surgery.

Signs & Symptoms of Mesothelioma Tumor

Signs and symptoms of mesothelioma vary depending on where the cancer occurs.

Pleural mesothelioma signs and symptoms may include:

• Shortness of breath
• Painful breathing (pleurisy)
• Painful coughing
• Chest pain under the rib cage
• Unusual lumps of tissue under the skin on your chest
• Unexplained weight loss
• Dry (nonproductive) cough

Peritoneal mesothelioma signs and symptoms may include:

• Abdominal pain
• Abdominal swelling
• A change in your bowel habits, such as more frequent diarrhea or constipation
• Lumps of tissue in the abdomen
• Unexplained weight loss

Other forms of mesothelioma

Signs and symptoms of pericardial mesothelioma and mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis are unclear. These forms are so rare that not much information is available. Pericardial mesothelioma signs and symptoms may include difficulty breathing or chest pains. Mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis may be first detected as a mass on a testicle.

Diagnosis of Mesothelioma Tumor

If you have signs and symptoms that might indicate mesothelioma, your doctor will conduct a physical exam to check for any lumps or other unusual signs. Your doctor may order imaging scans, such as a chest X-ray or a computerized tomography (CT) scan of your chest or abdomen, to look for abnormalities. It's not uncommon for mesothelioma to be misdiagnosed initially because mesothelioma is rare, and its signs and symptoms aren't specific. Your doctor will likely rule out other more common conditions before considering mesothelioma.

Biopsy

Biopsy, a procedure to remove a small portion of tissue for laboratory examination, is the only way to determine whether you have mesothelioma. Depending on what area of your body is affected, your doctor selects the right biopsy procedure for you. Options include:

• Fine-needle aspiration. The doctor removes fluid or a piece of tissue with a small needle inserted into your chest or abdomen.
• Thoracoscopy. Thoracoscopy allows the surgeon to see inside your chest. In this procedure, the surgeon makes one or more small incisions between your ribs. A tube with a tiny video camera is then inserted into your chest cavity — a procedure sometimes called video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS). Special surgical tools allow your surgeon to cut away tissue for testing.
• Laparoscopy. Laparoscopy allows the surgeon to see inside your abdomen. Using one or more small incisions into your abdomen, the surgeon inserts a tiny camera and special surgical tools to obtain a small piece of tissue for examination.
• Thoracotomy. Thoracotomy is surgery to open your chest between the ribs to allow a surgeon to check for signs of disease. He or she removes a sample of tissue for testing.
• Laparotomy. Laparotomy is surgery to open your abdomen to allow a surgeon to check for signs of disease. He or she removes a sample of tissue for testing. The tissue sample is analyzed under a microscope to see whether the abnormal tissue is mesothelioma and what types of cells are involved. The type of mesothelioma you have determines your treatment plan.

Staging

Once mesothelioma is diagnosed, your doctor orders other tests to determine the extent, or stage, of the cancer. Imaging tests that may help determine the stage of your cancer include:

• Chest X-ray
• CT scans of the chest and abdomen
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
• Positron emission tomography (PET)

Once the extent of pleural mesothelioma is determined, a stage is assigned. Formal stages aren't available for other types of mesothelioma because these types are rare and aren't well studied. The stages of pleural mesothelioma are:

• I. Stage I pleural mesothelioma is considered localized cancer, meaning it's limited to one portion of the lining of the chest.
• II. Stage II mesothelioma may have spread beyond the lining of the chest to the diaphragm or to a lung.
• III. Stage III mesothelioma may have spread to other structures within the chest and may involve nearby lymph nodes.
• IV. Stage IV mesothelioma is an advanced cancer that has spread to distant areas (metastasized). Mesothelioma most commonly spreads (metastasizes) to the brain, lymph nodes in the chest and areas of the lung that are away from the tumor.

Treatments of Mesothelioma Tumor
What treatment you undergo for mesothelioma depends on your health and certain aspects of your cancer, such as its stage and location. Unfortunately, mesothelioma often is an aggressive disease and for most people a cure isn't possible. Mesothelioma is usually diagnosed at an advanced stage — when it isn't possible to remove the cancer through an operation. Instead, your doctor may work to control your cancer to make you more comfortable. Discuss treatment goals with your doctor. Some people want to do everything they can to treat their cancer, even if that means enduring side effects for a small chance of an improvement. Others prefer treatments that make them comfortable so that they can live their remaining months as symptom-free as possible.
Surgery
Surgeons work to remove mesothelioma in instances where it is diagnosed at an early stage. Sometimes it isn't possible to remove all of the cancer. In those cases, surgery may help to reduce the signs and symptoms caused by mesothelioma spreading in your body. Surgical options may include:

• Surgery to decrease fluid buildup. Pleural mesothelioma may cause fluid to build up in your chest, causing difficulty breathing. Surgeons insert a tube or catheter into your chest to drain the fluid. Surgeons may also inject medicine into your chest to prevent fluid from returning (pleurodesis).
• Surgery to remove the tissue around the lung or abdomen. Surgeons may remove the tissue lining the ribs and the lungs (pleurectomy) or the tissue lining the abdominal cavity (peritonectomy) in order to relieve signs and symptoms of mesothelioma.
• Surgery to remove as much of the cancer as possible (debulking). If all of the cancer can't be removed, surgeons may attempt to remove as much as possible.
• Surgery to remove a lung and the surrounding tissue. Removing the affected lung and the tissue that surrounds it may relieve signs and symptoms of pleural mesothelioma. This procedure also allows doctors to use higher doses of radiation against any remaining mesothelioma, since they won't need to worry about protecting your lung from damaging radiation.

Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses chemicals to kill cancer cells. Systemic chemotherapy travels throughout the body and may shrink or slow the growth of a pleural mesothelioma that can't be removed using surgery. Chemotherapy may also be used before surgery (neoadjuvant chemotherapy) to make an operation easier or after surgery (adjuvant chemotherapy) to reduce the chance that cancer will return. Chemotherapy drugs may also be heated and administered directly into the abdominal cavity (intraperitoneal chemotherapy), in the case of peritoneal mesothelioma, or into the chest cavity (intrapleural chemotherapy), in the case of pleural mesothelioma. Using this strategy, chemotherapy drugs can reach the mesothelioma directly without injuring healthy cells in other parts of the body. This allows doctors to administer higher doses of chemotherapy drugs. Intraperitoneal chemotherapy may also be used to reduce the signs and symptoms of peritoneal mesothelioma that can't be removed through surgery.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy focuses high-energy beams to a specific spot or spots on your body. Radiation may reduce signs and symptoms in people with pleural mesothelioma. Doctors aim radiation at the entire chest to obtain the best result. However, many sensitive organs are in the chest, such as the heart, lungs, esophagus and spinal cord, so doctors must use low doses of radiation to spare these organs. Radiation therapy is sometimes used after biopsy or surgery to prevent mesothelioma from spreading to the surgical incision. Radiation therapy is used occasionally in people with peritoneal mesothelioma to reduce signs and symptoms caused by the cancer.
Combination therapy
Surgery, chemotherapy and radiation therapy may be combined. This aggressive therapy can be grueling and may not be appropriate for everyone. Younger, healthier people and those with earlier stage mesothelioma may be more able to endure this treatment. Combination therapy has shown the most promise in treating mesothelioma. However, most people will eventually experience a recurrence of this cancer despite aggressive treatment. Combination therapy has been used in both pleural mesothelioma and peritoneal mesothelioma.
Clinical trials
Clinical trials are studies of new mesothelioma treatment methods. People with mesothelioma may opt for a clinical trial for a chance to try new types of treatment. However, a cure isn't guaranteed. Carefully consider your treatment options and talk to your doctor about what clinical trials are open to you. Your participation in a clinical trial may help doctors better understand how to treat mesothelioma in the future. Clinical trials are currently investigating a number of targeted drugs. Targeted drug therapy uses drugs to attack specific abnormalities within cancer cells. Targets being studied in mesothelioma include a substance that cancer cells make to attract new blood vessels to bring the cancer oxygen and nutrients. Another target is an enzyme that helps cancer cells develops resistance to chemotherapy drugs. Researchers hope drugs that target these areas can help kill mesothelioma cells.
Treatment for other types of mesothelioma
Pericardial mesothelioma and mesothelioma of the tunica vaginalis are very rare and can be very aggressive. Early-stage cancer may be removed through surgery. Doctors have yet to determine the best way to treat later stage cancers, though. Your doctor may recommend other treatments to improve your quality of life.

Prevention of Mesothelioma Tumor

Reducing your exposure to asbestos may lower your risk of mesothelioma.

Find out whether you work with asbestos

Most people with mesothelioma were exposed to the asbestos fibers at work. Workers who may encounter asbestos fibers include:

• Miners
• Factory workers
• Insulation manufacturers
• Railroad workers
• Ship builders
• Gas mask manufacturers
• Construction workers
• Auto mechanics

Ask your employer whether you have a risk of asbestos exposure on the job.
Follow your employer's safety regulations
Follow all safety precautions in your workplace, such as wearing protective equipment. You may also be required to shower and change out of your work clothes before taking a lunch break or going home. Talk to your doctor about other precautions you can take to protect yourself from asbestos exposure.
Be safe around asbestos in your home
Older homes and buildings may contain asbestos. In many cases, it's more dangerous to remove the asbestos than it is to leave it intact. Breaking up asbestos may cause fibers to become airborne, where they can be inhaled. Consult experts trained to detect asbestos in your home. These experts may test the air in your home to determine whether the asbestos is a risk to your health. Don't attempt to remove asbestos from your home — hire a qualified expert. The Environmental Protection Agency offers advice on its Web site for dealing with asbestos in the home.
When to seek Medical Advice
See your doctor if you have signs and symptoms that may indicate mesothelioma. Signs and symptoms of mesothelioma aren't specific to this disease and, due to the rarity of mesothelioma, are more likely to be related to other conditions. If any persistent signs and symptoms seem unusual or bothersome to you, ask your doctor to evaluate them.

9. Melanoma Tumor

Melanoma, the most serious type of skin cancer, develops in the cells that produce melanin — the pigment that gives your skin its color. Melanoma can also form in your eyes and, rarely, in internal organs, such as your intestines. The exact cause of all melanomas isn't clear, but exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from sunlight or tanning lamps and beds increases your risk of developing melanoma. Other factors, such as your genetic makeup, likely also play a role. Limiting your sun exposure and avoiding tanning lamps and beds can help reduce your risk of melanoma. And making sure you know the warning signs of skin cancer can help ensure that cancerous changes are detected and treated before the cancer has a chance to spread. Melanoma can be treated successfully if it is detected early.

Causes of Melanoma Tumor

• Melanoma occurs when something goes awry in the melanin-producing cells (melanocytes) that give color to your skin. Normally, skin cells develop in a controlled and orderly way — healthy new cells push older cells toward your skin's surface, where they die and eventually are sloughed off. But when some cells develop DNA damage, new cells may begin to grow out of control and can eventually form a mass of cancerous cells.
• Just what damages DNA in skin cells and how this leads to melanoma isn't clear. It's likely that a combination of factors, including environmental and genetic factors, causes melanoma. Still, doctors believe exposure to ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun and from tanning lamps and beds is the leading cause of melanoma.
• UV light doesn't cause all melanomas, especially those that occur in places on your body that don't receive exposure to sunlight. This indicates that other factors may contribute to your risk of melanoma.

Signs & Symptoms of Melanoma Tumor

Melanomas can develop anywhere on your body, but they most often develop in areas that have had exposure to the sun, such as your back, legs, arms and face. Melanomas can also occur in areas that don't receive much sun exposure, such as the soles of your feet, palms of your hands and on fingernail beds. These hidden melanomas are more common in people with darker skin.

The first melanoma symptoms often are:

• A change in an existing mole
• The development of a new, unusual-looking growth on your skin

Melanoma doesn't always begin as a mole. It can also occur on otherwise normal-appearing skin.

Normal moles

Normal moles are generally a uniform color, such as tan, brown or black, with a distinct border separating the mole from your surrounding skin. They're oval or round and usually smaller than 1/4 inch (6 millimeters) in diameter — the size of a pencil eraser. Most people have between 10 and 40 moles. Many of these develop by age 40; although moles may change in appearance over time — some may even disappear with age.

Unusual moles that may indicate melanoma

Characteristics of unusual moles that may indicate melanomas or other skin cancers follow the A-B-C-D-E guide developed by the American Academy of Dermatology:

• A is for asymmetrical shape. Look for moles with irregular shapes, such as two very different-looking halves.
• B is for irregular border. Look for moles with irregular, notched or scalloped borders — characteristics of melanomas.
• C is for changes in color. Look for growths that have many colors or an uneven distribution of color.
• D is for diameter. Look for new growth in a mole larger than about 1/4 inch (6 millimeters).
• E is for evolving. Look for changes over time, such as a mole that grows in size or that changes color or shape. Moles may also evolve to develop new signs and symptoms, such as new itchiness or bleeding.

Other suspicious changes in a mole may include:

• Scaliness
• Itching
• Spreading of pigment from the mole into the surrounding skin
• Oozing or bleeding

Cancerous (malignant) moles vary greatly in appearance. Some may show all of the changes listed above, while others may have only one or two unusual characteristics.

Hidden melanomas

Melanomas can also develop in areas of your body that have little or no exposure to the sun, such as the spaces between your toes and on your palms, soles, scalp or genitals. These are sometimes referred to as hidden melanomas; because they occur in places most people wouldn't think to check. When melanoma occurs in people with darker skin, it's more likely to occur in a hidden area.

Hidden melanomas include:

• Melanoma under a nail. Subungual melanoma is a rare form that occurs under a nail and can affect the hands or the feet. It's more common in blacks and in other people with darker skin pigment. The first indication of a subungual melanoma is usually a brown or black discoloration that's often mistaken for a bruise (hematoma).
• Melanoma in the mouth, digestive tract, urinary tract or vagina. Mucosal melanoma develops in the mucous membrane that lines the nose, mouth, esophagus, anus, urinary tract and vagina. Mucosal melanomas are especially difficult to detect because they can easily be mistaken for other, far more common conditions. A melanoma in a woman's vagina can cause itching and bleeding. Anal melanoma can cause anal bleeding and pain during bowel movements. Melanoma that occurs in the esophagus can cause difficulty swallowing.
• Melanoma in the eye. Eye melanoma, also called ocular melanoma, occurs in the uvea — the layer beneath the white of the eye (sclera). An eye melanoma may cause vision changes and may be diagnosed during an eye exam.

Diagnosis of Melanoma Tumor

Skin cancer screening

Ask your doctor whether you should consider periodic screening for skin cancer. You and your doctor may consider screening options such as:

• Skin exams by a trained professional. The American Cancer Society (ACS) recommends periodic skin exams as part of your usual checkups with your doctor. During a skin exam, your doctor conducts a head-to-toe inspection of your skin.
• Skin exams you do at home. In addition, the ACS and the American Academy of Dermatology recommend occasional self-exams. A self-exam may help you learn the moles, freckles and other skin marks that are normal for you, so you can notice any changes. It's best to do this standing in front of a full-length mirror while using a hand-held mirror to inspect hard-to-see areas. Be sure to check the fronts, backs and sides of your arms and legs. In addition, check your groin, scalp, fingernails, your soles and the spaces between your toes. Other groups don't recommend skin cancer screening exams because it's not clear whether screening saves lives. Instead, finding an unusual mole could lead to a biopsy, which, if the mole is found to not be cancerous, could lead to unnecessary pain, anxiety and cost. Talk to your doctor about what screening is right for you, based on your risk of skin cancer.

Diagnosing melanoma

Sometimes cancer can be detected simply by looking at your skin, but the only way to accurately diagnose melanoma is with a biopsy. In this procedure, all or part of the suspicious mole or growth is removed, and a pathologist analyzes the sample. Biopsy procedures used to diagnose melanoma include:

• Punch biopsy. During a punch biopsy, your doctor uses a tool with a circular blade. The blade is pressed into the skin around a suspicious mole and a round piece of skin is removed.
• Excisional biopsy. In this procedure, the entire mole or growth is removed, along with a small border of normal-appearing skin.
• Incisional biopsy. With an incisional biopsy, only the most irregular part of a mole or growth is taken for laboratory analysis.

The type of skin biopsy procedure you undergo will depend on your situation.

Melanoma stages

If you receive a diagnosis of melanoma, the next step is to determine the extent, or stage, of the cancer. To assign a stage to your melanoma, your doctor will:

• Determine the thickness. The thickness of a melanoma is determined by carefully examining the melanoma under a microscope. The thickness of a melanoma helps doctors decide on a treatment plan. In general, the thicker the tumor, the more serious the disease.
• See if the melanoma has spread. To determine whether your melanoma has spread to nearby lymph nodes, your surgeon may use a procedure known as a sentinel node biopsy. During a sentinel node biopsy, a dye is injected in the area where your melanoma was removed. The dye flows to the nearby lymph nodes. The first lymph nodes to take up the dye are removed and tested for cancer cells. If these first lymph nodes (sentinel lymph nodes) are cancer-free, there's a good chance that the melanoma has not spread beyond the area where it was first discovered. Melanoma is staged using the Roman numerals I through IV. A stage I melanoma is small and has a very successful treatment rate. But the higher the numeral, the lower the chances of a full recovery. By stage IV, the cancer has spread beyond your skin to other organs, such as your lungs or liver.

Treatments of Melanoma Tumor
The best treatment for you depends on your stage of cancer and your age, overall health and personal preferences.
Treating early-stage melanomas
Treatment for early-stage melanomas usually includes surgery to remove the melanoma. A very thin melanoma may have been entirely removed during the biopsy and require no further treatment. Otherwise, your surgeon will remove the cancer as well as a small border of normal skin and a layer of tissue beneath the skin. For people with early-stage melanomas, this may be the only treatment needed.
Treating melanomas that have spread beyond the skin
If melanoma has spread beyond the skin, treatment options may include:

• Surgery to remove affected lymph nodes. If melanoma has spread to nearby lymph nodes, your surgeon may remove the affected nodes. Additional treatments before or after surgery may also be recommended.
• Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy can be administered intravenously, in pill form or both, so that it travels throughout your body. Or chemotherapy can be administered in a vein in your arm and leg in a procedure called isolated limb perfusion. During this procedure, blood in your arm or leg isn't allowed to travel to other areas of your body for a short time, so that the chemotherapy drugs travel directly to the area around the melanoma and don't affect other parts of your body.
• Radiation therapy. This treatment uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. It's sometimes used to help relieve symptoms of melanoma that has spread to another organ. Fatigue is a common side effect of radiation therapy, but your energy usually returns once the treatment is complete.
• Biological therapy (immunotherapy). Biological therapy boosts your immune system to help your body fight cancer. These treatments are made of substances produced by the body or similar substances produced in a laboratory. Biological therapies used to treat melanoma include interferon and interleukin-2. Side effects of these treatments are similar to those of the flu, including chills, fatigue, fever, headache and muscle aches.

Experimental melanoma treatments
Clinical trials are studies of new treatments for melanoma. Doctors use clinical trails to determine whether a treatment is safe and effective. People who enroll in clinical trials have a chance to try evolving therapies, but a cure isn't guaranteed. And sometimes the potential side effects aren't known.
Some melanoma treatments being studied in clinical trials include:

• Combining chemotherapy and biological therapy. Combining chemotherapy and biological therapy drugs may increase the success of both of these treatments. However, combining treatments can make severe side effects more likely.
• Targeted therapy. Targeted therapies interrupt a specific process in cancer cells in order to control cancer. For instance, targeted drugs designed to stop melanoma from attracting blood vessels have been tested. Melanoma needs blood vessels to deliver nutrients and it uses blood vessels to spread cancer cells throughout the body. A drug that stops this process could cause a melanoma to remain small and localized. In another approach, specific chemicals that stimulate cancer cells to grow rapidly could be inactivated.
• Vaccine treatment. Vaccines for treating cancer are different from vaccines used to prevent diseases. Vaccine treatment for melanoma might involve injecting altered cancer cells into the body to draw the attention of the immune system.

Prevention of Melanoma Tumor
The best news about melanoma is that many cases of skin cancer can be prevented by following these straightforward precautions:

• Avoid midday sun. Avoid the sun when its rays are the strongest. For most places, this is between about 10 a.m. and 4 p.m. Because the sun's rays are strongest during this period, try to schedule outdoor activities for other times of the day, even in winter or when the sky is cloudy. You absorb UV radiation year-round, and clouds offer little protection from damaging rays.
• Wear sunscreen year-round. Choose a broad-spectrum sunscreen that has a sun protection factor (SPF) of at least 15. Use a generous amount of sunscreen on all exposed skin, including your lips, the tips of your ears, and the backs of your hands and neck. Apply sunscreen 20 to 30 minutes before sun exposure and reapply it frequently while you're exposed to the sun. Be sure to reapply it after swimming or exercising.
• Wear protective clothing. Sunscreens don't provide complete protection from UV rays, so wear tightly woven clothing that covers your arms and legs, and a broad-brimmed hat, which provides more protection than a baseball cap or visor does. Some companies also sell photo protective clothing. Your dermatologist can recommend an appropriate brand. Don't forget sunglasses. Look for those that block both types of UV radiation — UVA and UVB rays.
• Avoid tanning beds. Tanning beds emit UV radiation, which can increase the risk of skin cancer.
• Become familiar with your skin, so you'll notice changes. Examine your skin so that you become familiar with what your skin normally looks like. This way, you may be more likely to notice any skin changes. With the help of mirrors, check your face, neck, ears and scalp. Examine your chest and trunk, and the tops and undersides of your arms and hands. Examine both the front and back of your legs, and your feet, including the soles and the spaces between your toes. Also check your genital area, and between your buttocks. If you notice anything unusual, point it out to your doctor at your next appointment.

When to seek Medical Advice
Make an appointment with your doctor if you notice any skin changes that seem unusual.

10. Neuroblastoma

Neuroblastoma is a cancer that develops from nerve cells found in several areas of the body. Neuroblastoma most commonly arises in and around the adrenal glands, which have similar origins to nerve cells and sit atop the kidneys. However, neuroblastoma can also develop in other areas of the abdomen and in the chest, neck and pelvis, where groups of nerve cells exist. Neuroblastoma most commonly affects children age 5 or younger, though it may rarely occur in older children and adults. Neuroblastoma is the most common cancer in babies and often has a very good prognosis in children younger than 1. About 650 people are diagnosed with neuroblastoma each year in the United States, according to the American Cancer Society.

Complications of Neuroblastoma

Complications of neuroblastoma may include:

• Spread of the cancer (metastasis). Neuroblastoma may spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body, such as the lymph nodes, bone marrow, eyes, liver, skin and the tissue that surrounds the spinal cord (dura).
• Spinal cord compression. Tumors may grow and press on the spinal cord, causing spinal cord compression. Spinal cord compression may cause pain and paralysis.
• Signs and symptoms caused by tumor secretions. Neuroblastomas may secrete certain chemicals that irritate other normal tissues, causing signs and symptoms called paraneoplastic syndromes. One paraneoplastic syndrome that occurs rarely in people with neuroblastoma causes rapid eye movements and difficulty with coordination. Another rare syndrome causes abdominal swelling and diarrhea.

Causes of Neuroblastoma

• In general, cancer begins with a genetic mutation that allows normal, healthy cells to continue growing without responding to the signals to stop, which normal cells do. Cancer cells grow and multiply out of control. The accumulating abnormal cells form a mass (tumor). Cancer cells may invade nearby tissues and can break off from an initial tumor to spread elsewhere in the body (metastasize).
• Neuroblastoma begins in neuroblasts — immature nerve cells that a fetus makes as part of its development process. As the fetus matures, neuroblasts eventually turn into nerve cells and fibers and the cells that make up the adrenal glands. The majority of neuroblasts mature by birth, though studies have found a small number of immature neuroblasts in newborns. In most cases, these neuroblasts will mature or disappear. Others, however, form a tumor — a neuroblastoma.
• It isn't clear what causes the initial genetic mutation that leads to neuroblastoma. However, because neuroblastoma usually affects very young children, researchers believe the mutation occurs during pregnancy, or possibly even before conception.

Signs & Symptoms of Neuroblastoma
Signs and symptoms of neuroblastoma vary depending on what part of the body is affected.
Neuroblastoma in the abdomen — the most common form — may cause signs and symptoms such as:

• Abdominal pain
• A feeling of fullness in the abdomen
• A mass under the skin that isn't tender when touched
• Changes in bowel habits, such as constipation
• Changes in urinary habits, such as having to go to the bathroom more often
• Swelling in the legs

Neuroblastoma in the chest may cause signs and symptoms such as:

• Wheezing
• Swelling in the face
• Changes to the eyes, including drooping eyelids and unequal pupil size

Other signs and symptoms that may indicate neuroblastoma include:

• Lumps of tissue under the skin
• Eyeballs that seem to protrude from the sockets (proptosis)
• Dark circles, similar to bruises, around the eyes
• Back pain
• Curvature of the spine (scoliosis)
• Fever
• Unexplained weight loss
• Bone pain

Diagnosis of Neuroblastoma
Tests and procedures used to diagnose neuroblastoma include:

• Physical exam. Your child's doctor conducts a physical exam to check out any signs and symptoms. The doctor will ask you questions about your child's habits and behaviors.
• Urine and blood tests in children. These may indicate the cause of any signs and symptoms your child is experiencing. Urine tests may be used to check for high levels of certain chemicals that result from the neuroblastoma cells producing excess catecholamines.
• Imaging tests. Imaging tests may reveal a mass that may indicate a tumor. Imaging tests may include X-ray, ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT) scan and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), among others.
• Tumor biopsy. If a mass is found, your child's doctor may want to remove a sample of the tissue for laboratory testing (biopsy). An incisional biopsy is a surgical procedure to remove a small piece of tissue from the tumor. If the cancer is small and confined to one area, the surgeon may remove the entire tumor and send it to a laboratory for examination (excisional biopsy). Specialized tests can reveal what types of cells are involved in the tumor and specific genetic characteristics of the cancer cells. This information helps your child's doctor devise an individualized treatment plan.
• Bone marrow biopsy. Your child may also undergo bone marrow biopsy and bone marrow aspiration procedures to see if neuroblastoma has spread to the bone marrow — the spongy material inside the largest bones where blood cells are formed. In order to remove bone marrow for testing, the surgeon inserts a needle into your child's hipbones or lower back and draws out the marrow.

Treatments of Neuroblastoma
Your child's doctor selects a treatment plan based on several factors that affect your child's prognosis. Factors include your child's age, the stage of the cancer, the type of cells involved in the cancer, and whether there are any abnormalities in the chromosomes and genes. Using this information, your child's doctor categorizes the cancer as low risk, intermediate risk or high risk. What treatment or combination of treatments your child receives for neuroblastoma depends on the risk category.
Surgery
Surgeons use scalpels and other surgical tools to remove cancer cells. In children with low-risk neuroblastoma, surgery to remove the tumor may be the only treatment needed. Whether the tumor can be completely removed depends on its location and its size. Tumors that are attached to nearby vital organs — such as the lungs or the spinal cord — may be too risky to remove. In intermediate-risk and high-risk neuroblastoma, surgeons may try to remove as much of the tumor as possible. Other treatments, such as chemotherapy and radiation, may then be used to kill remaining cancer cells.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses chemicals to destroy cancer cells. Chemotherapy targets rapidly growing cells in the body, including cancer cells. Unfortunately, chemotherapy also damages healthy cells that grow quickly, such as cells in the hair follicles and in the gastrointestinal system, which can cause side effects. Children with low-risk neuroblastoma that can't be removed surgically may receive low doses of chemotherapy. Sometimes chemotherapy is administered before surgery (neoadjuvant chemotherapy) to shrink the tumor to a size that's more easily removed. In other cases, chemotherapy may be the only treatment. Children with intermediate-risk neuroblastoma often receive a combination of moderate-intensity chemotherapy drugs. Chemotherapy is often given before surgery to improve the chances that the entire tumor can be removed. Children with high-risk neuroblastoma usually receive high doses of chemotherapy drugs to shrink the tumor and to kill any cancer cells that have spread elsewhere in the body. Chemotherapy is usually used before surgery and before bone marrow stem cell transplant.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high doses of energy particles to destroy cancer cells. Radiation therapy primarily affects the area where it's aimed. Your child's radiation therapy team tries to protect the healthy cells near the cancer, but some healthy cells may be damaged by the radiation. What side effects your child experiences depends on where the radiation is directed. Children with low-risk or intermediate-risk neuroblastoma may receive radiation therapy if surgery and chemotherapy haven't been helpful. Children with high-risk neuroblastoma may receive radiation therapy after chemotherapy and surgery, to prevent cancer from recurring.
Stem cell transplant
Children with high-risk neuroblastoma may receive a transplant using their own blood stem cells (autologous stem cell transplant). The bone marrow makes stem cells, which mature and develop into the red and white cells and platelets that make up the blood. Your child undergoes a procedure that filters and collects stem cells from his or her blood. Then high doses of chemotherapy are used to kill any remaining cancer cells in your child's body. Your child's stem cells are then injected into your child's body, where they can form new, healthy blood cells.
Long-term and late side effects of cancer treatment
As more and more children are surviving cancer and living into adulthood, doctors are increasingly aware of the long-term side effects of cancer treatment. Doctors recommend childhood cancer survivors be seen every year by a doctor who understands the long-term and late side effects that can affect children after cancer treatment. Side effects vary depending on treatment, but may include impaired growth, thyroid problems, second cancers and infertility, which may be caused by chemotherapy drugs. Difficulty thinking and trouble processing thoughts may be long-term side effects of radiation, especially brain radiation or total body irradiation.
When to seek Medical Advice
Contact your child's doctor if your child has any signs or symptoms that worry you. Mention any changes in your child's behavior or habits.

11.Lung Cancer

Lung cancer is a type of cancer that begins in the lungs. Your lungs are two spongy organs in your chest that take in oxygen when you inhale and release carbon dioxide when you exhale. Lung cancer is the leading cause of cancer deaths in the United States, among both men and women. Lung cancer claims more lives each year than colon, prostate, ovarian, lymph and breast cancers combined. People who smoke have the greatest risk of lung cancer. The risk of lung cancer increases with the length of time and number of cigarettes smoked. If you quit smoking, even after smoking for many years, you can significantly reduce your chances of developing lung cancer.

Complications of Lung Cancer

Lung cancer can cause complications, such as:

• Shortness of breath. People with lung cancer can experience shortness of breath if cancer grows to block the major airways. Lung cancer can also cause fluid to accumulate around the lungs, making it harder for the lungs to expand fully when you inhale.
• Coughing up blood. Lung cancer can cause bleeding in the airway, which can cause you to cough up blood (hemoptysis). Sometimes bleeding can become severe. Treatments are available to control bleeding.
• Pain. Advanced lung cancer that spreads to the lining of the lung or to another area of the body can cause pain. Tell your doctor if you experience pain. Pain may initially be mild and intermittent, but can become constant. Medications, radiation therapy and other treatments may help make you more comfortable.
• Fluid in the chest (pleural effusion). Lung cancer can cause fluid to accumulate in the space that surrounds the lungs in the chest cavity (pleural space). Pleural effusion can result from cancer spreading outside the lungs or in reaction to lung cancer inside the lungs. Fluid accumulating in the chest can cause shortness of breath. Treatments are available to drain the fluid from your chest and reduce the risk that pleural effusion will occur again.
• Cancer that spreads to other parts of the body (metastasis). Lung cancer often spreads (metastasizes) to other parts of the body — most commonly the opposite lung, brain, bones, liver and adrenal glands. Cancer that spreads can cause pain, nausea, headaches or other signs and symptoms depending on what organ is affected. In some cases, treatments are available for isolated metastasis, but in most cases, the goal of treatment for metastasis is only to relieve signs and symptoms.
• Death. Unfortunately, survival rates for people diagnosed with lung cancer are very low. In most cases, the disease is fatal. People diagnosed at the earliest stages have the greatest chances for a cure. Your doctor can discuss your chances for survival with you.

Causes of Lung Cancer
Smoking causes the majority of lung cancers — both in smokers and in people exposed to secondhand smoke. But lung cancer also occurs in people who never smoked and in those who never had prolonged exposure to secondhand smoke. In these cases, there may be no clear cause of lung cancer. Doctors have identified factors that may increase the risk.
How smoking causes lung cancer
Doctors believe smoking causes lung cancer by damaging the cells that line the lungs. When you inhale cigarette smoke, which is full of cancer-causing substances (carcinogens), changes in the lung tissue begin almost immediately. At first your body may be able to repair this damage. But with each repeated exposure, normal cells that line your lungs are increasingly damaged. Over time, the damage causes cells to act abnormally and eventually cancer may develop.
Signs & Symptoms of Lung Cancer
Lung cancer typically doesn't cause signs and symptoms in its earliest stages. Signs and symptoms of lung cancer typically occur only when the disease is advanced.
Signs and symptoms of lung cancer may include:

• A new cough that doesn't go away
• Changes in a chronic cough or "smoker's cough"
• Coughing up blood, even a small amount
• Shortness of breath
• Chest pain
• Wheezing
• Hoarseness
• Losing weight without trying
• Bone pain
• Headache

Diagnosis of Lung Cancer
Tests to diagnose lung cancer
If there's reason to think that you may have lung cancer, your doctor can order a number of tests to look for cancerous cells and to rule out other conditions. In order to diagnose lung cancer, your doctor may recommend:

• Imaging tests. An X-ray image of your lungs may reveal an abnormal mass or nodule. A CT scan can reveal small lesions in your lungs that might not be detected on an X-ray.
• Sputum cytology. If you have a cough and are producing sputum, looking at the sputum under the microscope can sometimes reveal the presence of lung cancer cells.
• Tissue samples (biopsy). A sample of abnormal cells may be removed in a procedure called a biopsy in order to diagnose lung cancer. Your doctor can perform a biopsy in a number of ways, including bronchoscopy, in which your doctor examines abnormal areas of your lungs using a lighted tube that's passed down your throat and into your lungs; mediastinoscopy, in which an incision is made at the base of your neck and surgical tools are inserted behind your breastbone to take tissue samples from lymph nodes; and needle biopsy, in which your doctor uses X-ray or CT images to guide a needle through your chest and into a suspicious lump or nodule to collect cells. A biopsy sample may also be taken from lymph nodes or other areas where cancer has spread, such as your liver.

Lung cancer staging
Once your lung cancer has been diagnosed, your doctor will work to determine the extent, or stage, of your cancer. Your cancer's stage helps you and your doctor decide what treatment is most appropriate.
Staging tests may include imaging procedures that allow your doctor to look for evidence that cancer has spread beyond your lungs. These tests include CT scans, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), positron emission tomography (PET) and bone scans. Not every test is appropriate for every person, so talk with your doctor about which procedures are appropriate for you.
Stages of non-small cell lung cancer

• Stage I. Cancer at this stage has invaded the underlying lung tissue but hasn't spread to the lymph nodes.
• Stage II. This stage cancer has spread to neighboring lymph nodes or invaded the chest wall or other nearby structures.
• Stage IIIA. At this stage, cancer has spread from the lung to lymph nodes in the center of the chest.
• Stage IIIB. The cancer has spread locally to areas such as the heart, blood vessels, trachea and esophagus — all within the chest — or to lymph nodes in the area of the collarbone or to the tissue that surrounds the lungs within the rib cage (pleura).
• Stage IV. The cancer has spread to other parts of the body, such as the liver, bones or brain.

Stages of small cell lung cancer

• Limited. Cancer is confined to one lung and to its neighboring lymph nodes.
• Extensive. Cancer has spread beyond one lung and nearby lymph nodes, and may have invaded both lungs, more-remote lymph nodes, or other organs, such as the liver or brain.

Treatments of Lung Cancer
You and your doctor choose a cancer treatment regimen based on a number of factors, such as your overall health, the type and stage of your cancer, and your preferences. Options typically include one or more treatments, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy or targeted drug therapy. In some cases you may choose not to undergo treatment. For instance, you may feel that the side effects of treatment will outweigh the potential benefits. When that's the case, your doctor may suggest comfort care to treat only the symptoms the cancer is causing, such as pain.
Surgery
During surgery your surgeon works to remove the lung cancer and a margin of healthy tissue. Procedures to remove lung cancer include:

• Wedge resection to remove a small section of lung that contains the tumor along with a margin of healthy tissue
• Segmental resection to remove a larger portion of lung, but not an entire lobe
• Lobectomy to remove the entire lobe of one lung
• Pneumonectomy to remove an entire lung

If you undergo surgery, your surgeon may also remove lymph nodes from your chest in order to check them for signs of cancer.
Lung cancer surgery carries risks, including bleeding and infection. Expect to feel short of breath after lung surgery. Your lung tissue will expand over time and make it easier to breathe. Your doctor may recommend a respiratory therapist who can guide you through breathing exercises to aid in your recovery.
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill cancer cells. One or more chemotherapy drugs may be administered through a vein in your arm (intravenously) or taken orally. A combination of drugs usually is given in a series of treatments over a period of weeks or months, with breaks in between so that your body can recover. Chemotherapy can be used as a first line treatment for lung cancer or as additional treatment after surgery. In some cases, chemotherapy can be used to lessen side effects of your cancer.
Radiation therapy
Radiation therapy uses high-powered energy beams, such as X-rays, to kill cancer cells. Radiation therapy can be directed at your lung cancer from outside your body (external beam radiation) or it can be put inside needles, seeds or catheters and placed inside your body near the cancer (brachytherapy). Radiation therapy can be used alone or with other lung cancer treatments. Sometimes it's administered at the same time as chemotherapy.
Targeted drug therapy
Targeted therapies are newer cancer treatments that work by targeting specific abnormalities in cancer cells. Targeted therapy options for treating lung cancer include:

• Bevacizumab (Avastin). Bevacizumab stops a tumor from creating a new blood supply. Blood vessels that connect to tumors can supply oxygen and nutrients to the tumor, allowing it to grow. Bevacizumab is usually used in combination with chemotherapy and is approved for advanced and recurrent non-small cell lung cancer. Bevacizumab carries a risk of bleeding, blood clots and high blood pressure.
• Erlotinib (Tarceva). Erlotinib blocks chemicals that signal the cancer cells to grow and divide. Erlotinib is approved for people with advanced and recurrent non-small cell lung cancer that haven't been helped by chemotherapy. Erlotinib side effects include a skin rash and diarrhea.

Clinical trials
Clinical trials are studies of experimental lung cancer treatment methods. You may be interested in enrolling in a clinical trial if lung cancer treatments aren't working or if your treatment options are limited. The treatments studied in a clinical trial may be the latest innovations, but they don't guarantee a cure. Carefully weigh your treatment options with your doctor. Your participation in a clinical trial may help doctors better understand how to treat lung cancer in the future.
Supportive care
When treatments offer little chance for a cure, your doctor may recommend you avoid harsh treatments and opt for supportive care instead. If you're receiving supportive care, your doctor may treat signs and symptoms to make you feel more comfortable, but you won't receive treatment aimed at stopping your cancer. Supportive care allows you to make the most of your final weeks or months without enduring treatment side effects that can negatively impact your quality of life.
Prevention of Lung Cancer
There's no sure way to prevent lung cancer, but you can reduce your risk if you:

• Don't smoke. If you've never smoked, don't start. Talk to your children about not smoking so that they can understand how to avoid this major risk factor for lung cancer. Many current smokers began smoking in their teens. Begin conversations about the dangers of smoking with your children early so that they know how to react to peer pressure.
• Stop smoking. Stop smoking now. Quitting reduces your risk of lung cancer, even if you've smoked for years. Talk to your doctor about strategies and stop-smoking aids that can help you quit. Options include nicotine replacement products, medications and support groups.
• Avoid secondhand smoke. If you live or work with a smoker, urge him or her to quit. At the very least, ask him or her to smoke outside. Avoid areas where people smoke, such as bars and restaurants, and seek out smoke-free options.
• Test your home for radon. Have the radon levels in your home checked, especially if you live in an area where radon is known to be a problem. High radon levels can be remedied to make your home safer. For information on radon testing, contact your local department of public health or a local chapter of the American Lung Association.
• Avoid carcinogens at work. Take precautions to protect yourself from exposure to toxic chemicals at work. In the United States, your employer must tell you if you're exposed to dangerous chemicals in your workplace. Follow your employer's precautions. For instance, if you're given a face mask for protection, always wear it. Ask your doctor what more you can do to protect yourself at work. Your risk of lung damage from these carcinogens increases if you smoke.
• Eat a diet full of fruits and vegetables. Choose a healthy diet with a variety of fruits and vegetables. Food sources of vitamins and nutrients are best. Avoid taking large doses of vitamins in pill form, as they may be harmful. For instance, researchers hoping to reduce the risk of lung cancer in heavy smokers gave them beta carotene supplements. Results showed the supplements actually increased the risk of cancer in smokers.
• Drink alcohol in moderation, if at all. Limit yourself to one drink a day if you're a woman or two drinks a day if you're a man. Anyone age 65 and older should drink no more than one drink a day.
• Exercise. Aim to achieve at least 30 minutes of exercise on most days of the week. Check with your doctor first if you aren't already exercising regularly. Start out slowly and continue adding more activity. Biking, swimming and walking are good choices. Add exercise throughout your day — park farther away from work and walk the rest of the way or take the stairs rather than the elevator.

When to seek Medical Advice

• Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any signs or symptoms that worry you.
• If you smoke and want to stop in order to reduce your risk of lung cancer, make an appointment with your doctor. Your doctor can recommend strategies for quitting, such as counseling, medications and nicotine replacement products.

12. Kidney Cancer

Kidney cancer is cancer that originates in the kidneys. Your kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of your fist. They're located behind your abdominal organs, with one kidney on each side of your spine. In adults, the most common type of kidney cancer is renal cell carcinoma. Other less common types of kidney cancer can occur. Transitional cell carcinoma, which affects the ureters, can also begin in the kidneys. Children are more likely to develop a kind of kidney cancer called Wilms' tumor.

Causes of Kidney Cancer

It's not clear what causes renal cell carcinoma. Doctors know that kidney cancer begins when some kidney cells acquire mutations in their DNA. The mutations tell the cells to grow and divide rapidly. The accumulating abnormal cells form a tumor that can extend beyond the kidney. Some cells can break off and spread (metastasize) to distant parts of the body.

Signs & Symptoms of Kidney Cancer

Kidney cancer rarely causes signs or symptoms in its early stages. In the later stages, kidney cancer signs and symptoms may include:

• Blood in your urine, which may appear pink, red or cola colored
• Back pain just below the ribs that doesn't go away
• Weight loss
• Fatigue
• Intermittent fever

Diagnosis of Kidney Cancer
Diagnosing kidney cancer
Tests and procedures used to diagnose kidney cancer include:

• Blood and urine tests. Tests of your blood and your urine may give your doctor clues about what's causing your signs and symptoms.
• Imaging tests. Imaging tests allow your doctor to visualize a kidney tumor or abnormality. Imaging tests might include ultrasound, computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
• Removing a sample of kidney tissue (biopsy). In very selected cases, your doctor may recommend a procedure to remove a small sample of cells (biopsy) from a suspicious area of your kidney. Because surgery is usually the first line treatment for kidney cancer and a kidney biopsy carries the risk of a "false-negative," doctors usually forgo kidney biopsy. Kidney biopsy is typically reserved for cases that are most likely to be noncancerous or for people who can't undergo an operation.

Kidney cancer staging
Once your doctor diagnoses kidney cancer, the next step is to determine the extent, or stage, of the cancer. Staging tests for kidney cancer may include additional CT scans or other imaging tests your doctor feels are appropriate.
Then your doctor assigns a number, called a stage, to your cancer. Kidney cancer stages include:

• Stage I. At this stage, the tumor can be up to 2 3/4 inches (7 centimeters) in diameter. The tumor is confined to the kidney.
• Stage II. A stage II kidney cancer is larger than a stage I tumor, but is still confined to the kidney.
• Stage III. At this stage, the tumor extends beyond the kidney to the surrounding tissue or the adrenal glands, and may also have spread to a nearby lymph node.
• Stage IV. Cancer spreads outside the kidney, to multiple lymph nodes or to distant parts of the body, such as the bones, brain, liver or lungs.

Treatments of Kidney Cancer
Together, you and your treatment team will discuss your kidney cancer treatment options. The best approach for you may depend on a number of factors, including your general health, the kind of kidney cancer you have, whether the cancer has spread and your preferences for treatment.
Surgery
Surgery is the initial treatment for the majority of kidney cancers. Surgical procedures used to treat kidney cancer include:

• Removing the affected kidney (nephrectomy). Radical nephrectomy involves the removal of the kidney, a border of healthy tissue and the adjacent lymph nodes. The adrenal gland may also be removed if it appears the tumor has grown into the gland. Nephrectomy can be an open operation, meaning the surgeon makes one large incision to access your kidney. Or nephrectomy can be done laparoscopically, using several small incisions to insert a video camera and tiny surgical tools. The surgeon watches a video monitor to perform the nephrectomy.
• Removing the tumor from the kidney (nephron-sparing surgery). During this procedure, also called partial nephrectomy, the surgeon removes the tumor and a small margin of healthy tissue that surrounds it, rather than removing the entire kidney. Nephron-sparing surgery can be an open procedure, or it may be performed laparoscopically. Nephron-sparing surgery may be an option if you have a small kidney cancer or if you only have one kidney. When nephron-sparing surgery is possible, it's generally preferred over radical nephrectomy, since retaining as much kidney tissue as possible may reduce your risk of later complications, such as kidney disease.

The type of surgery your doctor recommends will be based on your cancer and its stage, as well as your health. Surgery carries a risk of bleeding and infection.
Treatments when surgery isn't possible For some people, surgery may be too risky. These people have other options for treating their kidney cancers, including:

• Blocking blood flow to the tumor (embolization). In this procedure, a special material is injected into the main blood vessel leading to the kidney. Clogging this vessel deprives the tumor of oxygen and other nutrients. Arterial embolization also may be used before an operation or to relieve pain and bleeding when an operation isn't possible.
• Treatment to freeze cancer cells (cryoablation). During cryoablation, a special needle is inserted through your skin and into your kidney tumor using X-ray guidance. Gas in the needle is used to cool down or freeze the cancer cells. There are few long-term data about the safety and efficacy of cryoablation. It's typically reserved for people who can't undergo other surgical procedures and those who have small kidney tumors located in areas that can be easily reached with a needle.
• Treatment to heat cancer cells (radiofrequency ablation). During radiofrequency ablation, a special needle is inserted through your skin and into your kidney tumor using X-ray guidance. An electrical current is run through the needle and into the cancer cells, causing the cells to heat up or burn. There are few long-term data about the safety and efficacy of radiofrequency ablation. Radiofrequency ablation may be an option for people who can't undergo other surgical procedures and those with small kidney tumors located in areas that are easily reached with a needle.

Treatments for advanced and recurrent kidney cancer Kidney cancer that recurs and kidney cancer that spreads to other parts of the body may be curable. In these situations, treatments may include:

• Surgery to remove as much of the kidney tumor as possible. Even when surgery can't remove all of your cancer, in some cases it may be helpful to remove as much of the cancer as possible.
• Drugs that use your immune system to fight cancer (biological therapy). Biological therapy (immunotherapy) uses your body's immune system to fight cancer. Drugs in this category include interferon and interleukin-2, which are synthetic versions of chemicals made in your body. Side effects of these drugs include chills, fever, nausea, vomiting and loss of appetite.
• Treatment that targets specific aspects of your cancer (targeted therapy). Targeted treatments block specific abnormal signals present in kidney cancer cells that allow them to proliferate. These drugs have shown promise in treating kidney cancer that has spread to other areas of the body. The targeted drugs bevacizumab (Avastin), pazopanib (Votrient), sorafenib (Nexavar) and sunitinib (Sutent) block signals that play a role in the growth of blood vessels that provide nutrients to cancer cells and allow cancer cells to spread. Temsirolimus (Torisel) and everolimus (Afinitor) are targeted drugs that block a signal that allows cancer cells to grow and survive. Targeted therapy drugs can cause side effects, such as a rash that can be severe, diarrhea and fatigue.
• Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy is a drug treatment that uses chemicals to kill cancer cells. Chemotherapy isn't commonly used to treat renal cell carcinoma. But chemotherapy may be used to treat transitional cell carcinoma — a cancer of the ureters that sometimes begins in the kidneys. Chemotherapy treatments may be used before surgery to shrink a tumor, making it easier to remove. Or chemotherapy may be used to treat cancer cells that have traveled to distant parts of the body.
• Treatments for distant tumors. Kidney cancer cells that travel to other parts of the body (metastasize) can sometimes be treated. This depends on the number of distant tumors, their locations and your general health. Treatment options vary based on where your cancer has spread. Options might include surgery for brain metastasis or radiation for kidney cancer that has spread to bones.
• Clinical trials. Clinical trials are studies of new treatments and new techniques for treating kidney cancer and other diseases. Participating in a clinical trial may give you a chance to try the latest treatments, but it can't guarantee a cure. Discuss the available clinical trials with your doctor and carefully weigh the benefits and risks. Some kidney cancer clinical trials are studying new and existing targeted therapies to determine the best ways to use this new class of drugs.

Prevention of Kidney Cancer
Taking steps to improve your health may help reduce your risk of kidney cancer. To reduce your risk, try to:

• Quit smoking. If you smoke, quit. Many options for quitting exist, including support programs, medications and nicotine replacement products. Tell your doctor you want to quit, and discuss your options together.
• Eat more fruits and vegetables. Add more fruits and vegetables to your diet. A variety of fruits and vegetables helps ensure that you're getting all the nutrients that your body needs. Replacing some of your snacks and side dishes with fruits and vegetables may help you lose weight.
• Maintain a healthy weight. Work to maintain a healthy weight. If you're overweight or obese, reduce the number of calories you consume each day and try to exercise most days of the week. Ask your doctor about other healthy strategies to help you lose weight.
• Control high blood pressure. Ask your doctor to check your blood pressure at your next appointment. If your blood pressure is high, you can discuss options for lowering your numbers. Lifestyle measures such as exercise, weight loss and diet changes can help. Some people may need to add medications to lower their blood pressure. Discuss your options with your doctor.
• Reduce or avoid exposure to environmental toxins. If you work with toxic chemicals, take special precautions such as wearing a mask and heavy gloves. In the United States, your employer is required to tell you what chemicals you may be exposed to on the job. Follow your employer's safety procedures, and ask your doctor if there are other ways to protect yourself from chemical exposure.

When to seek Medical Advice
Make an appointment with your doctor if you have any persistent signs or symptoms that worry you.

13. Ovarian Cancer

Receiving a diagnosis of ovarian cancer is difficult and life changing. Fortunately, medical advances have made treatments more effective. Women diagnosed in the earliest stages have a five-year survival rate of nearly 93 percent, according to the American Cancer Society (ACS). Until recently, ovarian cancer was known as a "silent killer" because it usually wasn't found until it had spread to other areas of your body. But new evidence shows that most women may have symptoms even in the early stages, and awareness of symptoms may hopefully lead to earlier detection. Early detection is important; still, only about 20 percent of ovarian cancers are found before tumor growth has spread beyond the ovaries. Your chance of surviving ovarian cancer is better if the cancer is found early.

Causes of Ovarian Cancer

Women have two ovaries, one on either side of the uterus. The ovaries — each about the size of an almond — produce eggs (ova) as well as the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone. An ovarian tumor is a growth of abnormal cells that may be either noncancerous (benign) or cancerous (malignant). Although benign tumors are made up of abnormal cells, these cells don't spread to other body tissues (metastasize). Ovarian cancer cells metastasize in one of two ways. Generally, they spread directly to adjacent tissue or organs in the pelvis and abdomen. They can also spread through your bloodstream or lymph channels to other parts of your body.

Three basic types of ovarian tumors exist, designated by where they form in the ovary. They include:

• Epithelial tumors. About 85 to 90 percent of ovarian cancers develop in the epithelium, the thin layer of tissue that covers the ovaries, according to the American Cancer Society.
• Germ cell tumors. These tumors occur in the egg-producing cells of the ovary and generally occur in younger women.
• Stromal tumors. These tumors develop in the estrogen- and progesterone-producing tissue that holds the ovary together.

The exact cause of ovarian cancer remains unknown. Some researchers believe it has to do with the tissue-repair process that follows the monthly release of an egg through a tiny tear in an ovarian follicle (ovulation) during a woman's reproductive years. The formation and division of new cells at the rupture site may set up a situation in which genetic errors occur. Others propose that the increased hormone levels before and during ovulation may stimulate the growth of abnormal cells.
Signs & Symptoms of Ovarian Cancer
Symptoms of ovarian cancer are nonspecific and mimic those of many other more common conditions, including digestive and bladder disorders. A woman with ovarian cancer may be diagnosed with another condition before finally learning she has cancer. Common misdiagnoses include irritable bowel syndrome, stress and depression. The key seems to be persistent or worsening signs and symptoms. With most digestive disorders, symptoms tend to come and go, or they occur in certain situations or after eating certain foods. With ovarian cancer, there's typically little fluctuation — symptoms are constant and gradually worsen. Recent studies have shown that women with ovarian cancer are more likely than are other women to consistently experience the following symptoms:

• Abdominal pressure, fullness, swelling or bloating
• Urinary urgency
• Pelvic discomfort or pain

Additional signs and symptoms that women with ovarian cancer may experience include:

• Persistent indigestion, gas or nausea
• Unexplained changes in bowel habits, such as constipation
• Changes in bladder habits, including a frequent need to urinate
• Loss of appetite or quickly feeling full
• Increased abdominal girth or clothes fitting tighter around your waist
• Pain during intercourse (dyspareunia)
• A persistent lack of energy
• Low back pain
• Changes in menstruation

Diagnosis of Ovarian Cancer
A healthcare provider may perform the following tests to determine if a woman has an ovarian cyst or to help characterize the type of cyst that is present:

• Endovaginal ultrasound: This type of imaging test is a special form of ultrasound developed to examine the pelvic organs and is the best test for diagnosing an ovarian cyst. A cyst can be diagnosed based on its appearance on the ultrasound.
  • An endovaginal ultrasound is a painless procedure that resembles a pelvic exam. A thin, covered wand or probe is placed into the vagina, and the examiner directs the probe toward the uterus and ovaries.
  • This type of ultrasound produces a better image than a scan through the abdominal wall can because the probe can be positioned closer to the ovaries.
  • Using an endovaginal ultrasound, the internal cystic structure may be categorized as simple (just fluid filled), complex (with areas of fluid mixed with solid material), or completely solid (with no obvious fluid).
• Other imaging: CT scanning aids in assessing the extent of the condition. MRI scanning may also be used to clarify results of an ultrasound.
• Laparoscopic surgery: The surgeon fills a woman's abdomen with a gas and makes small incisions through which a thin scope (laparoscope) can pass into the abdomen. The surgeon identifies the cyst through the scope and may remove the cyst or take a biopsy from it.
• Serum CA-125 assay: This blood test checks for a substance called CA-125, which is associated with ovarian cancer (the CA stands for cancer antigen). This test is used in the assessment of epithelial ovarian cancer and may help determine if an ovarian mass is harmless or cancerous. However, sometimes benign conditions may result in the elevated levels of CA-125 in the blood, so the test does not positively establish the diagnosis of ovarian cancer.
• Hormone levels: A blood test to check LH, FSH, estradiol, and testosterone levels may indicate potential problems concerning these hormone levels.
• Pregnancy testing: The treatment of ovarian cysts is different for a pregnant woman than it is for a nonpregnant woman. An ectopic pregnancy (pregnancy outside the uterus) must be ruled out because some of the symptoms of ectopic pregnancy may be similar to those of ovarian cysts.
• Culdocentesis: This test involves taking a fluid sample from the pelvis with a needle inserted through the vaginal wall behind the uterine cervix.

Treatments of Ovarian Cancer

Treatment of ovarian cancer usually involves a combination of surgery and chemotherapy.

Surgery

In most cases, you'll want to have a gynecologic oncologist perform ovarian cancer surgery because they often have more training and experience with this type of operation. Generally, women with ovarian cancer require an extensive operation that includes removing both ovaries, fallopian tubes, and the uterus as well as nearby lymph nodes and a fold of fatty abdominal tissue known as the omentum, where ovarian cancer often spreads. During this procedure, your surgeon also removes as much cancer as possible from your abdomen (surgical debulking). Ideally, less than a total of 1 cubic centimeter of tumor matter remains in your abdominal cavity after surgery (optimal debulking). This may involve removing part of your intestines. In addition, your surgeon will take samples of tissue and fluid from your abdomen to examine for cancer cells. This evaluation is critical in identifying the stage of your disease and determining if you need additional therapy. If you want to preserve the option to have children and if your tumor is discovered early, your surgeon may be able to remove only the involved ovary and its fallopian tube. But, subsequent chemotherapy may cause infertility. However, in some cases, it is possible to successfully bear children after treatment. Be sure to discuss your desire to have children with your doctor.

Chemotherapy

After surgery, you'll most likely be treated with chemotherapy - drugs designed to kill any remaining cancer cells. The initial regimen for ovarian cancer includes the combination of carboplatin (Paraplatin) and paclitaxel (Taxol) injected into the bloodstream (intravenous administration). Clinical trials have found that this combination is effective, though researchers are continually looking for ways to improve on it. A more intensive regimen has recently been shown to improve survival in women with advanced ovarian cancer by combining standard intravenous chemotherapy with chemotherapy injected directly into the abdominal cavity through a catheter placed at the time of the initial operation. This intra-abdominal infusion exposes hard-to-reach cancer cells to higher levels of chemotherapy than can be reached intravenously. Side effects — including abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting — may leave many women unable to complete a full course of treatment or others to forego treatment entirely. But even an incomplete course of this treatment may help women live longer. Other treatments being explored include new chemotherapy drugs, vaccines, gene therapy and immunotherapy, which boosts the immune system to help combat cancer. The newest option, if standard chemotherapy fails, is a drug called bevacizumab (Avastin). It works by disrupting the blood supply to the tumor, possibly causing it to shrink. The most serious side effect associated with bevacizumab is bowel perforation, which occurs in about 7 percent of people taking it.

Radiation

While a mainstay in the treatment of some other cancers, radiation generally isn't considered effective for ovarian cancer. Sometimes, your doctor may recommend external beam radiation therapy (EBCT) to treat the symptoms of advanced cancer.

Prevention of Ovarian Cancer

Several factors appear to reduce the risk of ovarian cancer, including:

• Oral contraception (birth control pills). Compared with women who've never used them, women who use oral contraceptives for five years or more reduce their risk of ovarian cancer by about 50 percent, according to the ACS.
• Pregnancy and breast-feeding. Having at least one child lowers your risk of developing ovarian cancer. Breast-feeding a child also may reduce your risk of ovarian cancer.
• Tubal ligation or hysterectomy. Having your tubes tied or having a hysterectomy may reduce your risk of ovarian cancer.

When to seek Medical Advice
See your doctor if you have swelling, bloating, pressure or pain in your abdomen or pelvis that lasts for more than a few weeks. If you've already seen a doctor and received a diagnosis other than ovarian cancer, but you're not getting relief from the treatment, schedule a follow-up visit with your doctor or get a second opinion. Make sure that a pelvic exam is a part of your evaluation. If you have a history of ovarian cancer or a strong history of breast cancer in your family, strongly consider seeing a doctor trained to detect and care for ovarian cancer patients so that you can talk about screening, genetic testing and treatment options while you are disease-free.

14. Myeloma

Multiple myeloma is a cancer of your plasma cells, a type of white blood cell present in your bone marrow. Plasma cells normally make proteins called antibodies to help you fight infections. In multiple myeloma, a group of abnormal plasma cells (myeloma cells) multiplies, raising the number of plasma cells to a higher than normal level. Since these cells normally make proteins, the level of abnormal proteins in your blood also may go up. Health problems caused by multiple myeloma can affect your bones, immune system, kidneys and red blood cell count.

Complications of Myeloma
Multiple myeloma can result in several complications:

• Impaired immunity. Myeloma cells inhibit the production of antibodies needed for normal immunity. Having multiple myeloma may make you more likely to develop infections, such as pneumonia, sinusitis, bladder or kidney infections, skin infections, and shingles.
• Bone problems. Multiple myeloma also can affect your bones, leading to erosion of bone mass and fractures. The condition may cause compression of your spinal cord. Signs of this medical emergency include weakness, or even paralysis, in your legs.
• Impaired kidney function. Multiple myeloma may cause problems with kidney function, including kidney failure. Higher calcium levels in the blood related to eroding bones can interfere with your kidneys' ability to filter your blood's waste. The proteins produced by the myeloma cells can cause similar problems, especially if you become dehydrated.
• Anemia. As cancerous cells crowd out normal blood cells, multiple myeloma can also cause anemia and other blood problems.

Causes of Myeloma
The cause of myeloma is unknown. Several factors have been linked to myeloma, including genetic abnormalities, exposures to certain chemicals and other conditions in the workplace (petrochemical industry workers, leather workers, book binders, cosmetologists, shipyard workers, metallurgic industry workers), exposure to very large doses of radiation, certain viral infections, and immune system dysfunction. However, how any of these factors actually causes myeloma is unknown. Some people who develop myeloma have none of these risk factors.
Signs & Symptoms of Myeloma
Signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma can vary from person to person. Although the condition may not cause symptoms early in the disease, it's likely that you'll experience one or more of the following as the disease progresses:

• Bone pain, particularly in your back, pelvis, ribs and skull.
• Presence of abnormal proteins — which can be produced by myeloma cells — in your blood or urine. These proteins — which are antibodies or parts of antibodies — are called monoclonal, or M, proteins. Often discovered during a routine exam, monoclonal proteins may indicate multiple myeloma, but also can indicate other conditions.
• High level of calcium in your blood. This can occur when calcium from affected bones dissolves into your blood.

If you have a high calcium level in your blood, you may experience signs and symptoms such as:

• Excessive thirst and urination.
• Constipation.
• Nausea.
• Loss of appetite.
• Mental confusion.

Other signs and symptoms of multiple myeloma may include:

• Anemia-related fatigue as myeloma cells replace oxygen-carrying red blood cells in your bone marrow.
• Unexplained bone fractures.
• Repeated infections — such as pneumonia, sinusitis, bladder or kidney infections, skin infections, and shingles.
• Weight loss.
• Weakness or numbness in your legs.

Diagnosis of Myeloma
Your doctor may first detect signs of multiple myeloma before you ever have symptoms -through blood and urine tests conducted during a routine physical exam. If you don't yet have symptoms, these lab tests may be repeated every few months so that your doctor can track whether your disease is progressing and determine the best time to start treatment.
Blood and urine tests
Other tests
You may also need other tests. They may include:

• Imaging. X-rays of your skeleton can show whether your bones have any thinned-out areas, common in multiple myeloma. If a closer view of your bones is necessary, your doctor may use magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), computerized tomography (CT) scanning or positron emission tomography (PET) scanning.
• Bone marrow examination. Your doctor may also conduct a bone marrow examination by using a needle to remove a small sample of bone marrow tissue. The sample is then examined under a microscope to check for myeloma cells.
• Staging and classification. These tests can help confirm whether you have multiple myeloma or another condition. If tests indicate you have multiple myeloma, the results from these tests allow your doctor to classify your disease as stage 1, stage 2 or stage 3. People with stage 3 myeloma are more likely to have one or more signs of advanced disease, including greater numbers of myeloma cells and kidney failure.

Treatments of Myeloma
If you have multiple myeloma and aren't experiencing any symptoms, you may not need treatment. However, your doctors will regularly monitor your condition for signs that indicate the disease is progressing. If it is, you may need treatment to help prevent symptoms.
If you're experiencing symptoms, treatment can help relieve pain, control complications of the disease, stabilize your condition and slow the progress of the disease.
Standard treatments for myeloma
Though there's no cure for multiple myeloma, with good treatment results you can usually return to near-normal activity. You may wish to consider approved clinical trials as an option.
Standard treatment options include:

• Bortezomib (Velcade).
• Thalidomide (Thalomid).
• Lenalidomide (Revlimid).
• Chemotherapy.
• Corticosteroids.
• Stem cell transplantation.
• Radiation therapy.

Prevention of Myeloma
There is no known way to prevent myeloma. A standard recommendation is to avoid the risk factors for the disease, but little is known concerning the risk factors for myeloma.
When to seek Medical Advice
If you're persistently more tired than you used to be, you've lost weight, and you experience bone pain, repeated infections, loss of appetite, excessive thirst and urination, persistent nausea, increased constipation, or weakness or numbness in your legs, your signs and symptoms may indicate multiple myeloma or other serious disease. See your doctor to determine the underlying cause.

15. Brain Tumors

Brain tumors are composed of cells that exhibit unrestrained growth in the brain. The major areas of the brain have one or more specific functions.
They can be benign (noncancerous, meaning that they do not spread elsewhere or invade surrounding tissue) or malignant (cancerous).Cancerous brain tumors are further classified as either primary or secondary tumors.
Alternative Names of Brain Tumor are: Gliomas; Medulloblastomas
Complications of Brain Tumors
Brain tumors can be extremely serious, even when noncancerous. A non malignant brain tumor can do damages as it grows bigger within the rigid skull and starts pressing on the brain. The specific effects of tumor on the brain can cause-

• Seizures
• Mental changes
• Changes in mood and personality
• Emotional changes

Depending on the size and location, a brain tumor can cause temporary or permanent brain damage. The brain is divided into different parts that are responsible for variety of functions.
Causes of Brain Tumors

• The tumor cell destroys the brain cell which cause to the swelling of brain high pressure in the brain.
• Some genetically inheritance condition also causes to the growth of brain tumor.
• Vinyl chloride is a cancer causing substance which also causes to the brain tumor.
• The genetic conditions like mutations and deletions of tumor suppressor genes are responsible for the brain tumor.
• The people who works in manufacturing industry and chemical plats they have high risk of brain tumor.

Signs & Symptoms of Brain Tumors
The symptoms of brain tumors depend on tumor size, type and location. Symptoms may be caused when tumor presses on the nerve or damages a certain area of the brain. They also may be caused when the brain swells or fluid builds up within the skull.
The most common symptoms of brain tumors are -

• Headaches -usually worse in the morning.
• Nausea or Vomiting.
• Changes in speech, vision or hearing.
• Problems balancing or walking.
• Changes in mood, personality, or ability to concentrate.
• Problems with memory.
• Muscle jerking or twitching (seizures or convulsions)
  • Seizures: A seizure is a sudden, involuntary change in behavior, muscle control, consciousness, and/or sensation. Symptoms of a seizure can range from sudden, violent shaking and total loss of consciousness to muscle twitching or slight shaking of a limb. Staring into space, altered vision, and difficulty in speaking are some of the other behaviors that a person may exhibit while having a seizure.
• Numbness or tingling in the arms or legs.

These symptoms are not sure signs of a brain tumor. Anyone with these symptoms should see a doctor. Only a doctor can diagnose and treat the problem.
Diagnosis of Brain Tumors
If a person has symptoms that suggest a brain tumor, the doctor may perform one or more of the following procedures:

• Physical exam - The doctor checks general signs of health.
• Neurologic exam - The doctor checks for alertness, muscle strength, coordination, reflexes, and response to pain. The doctor also examines the eyes to look for swelling caused by a tumor pressing on the nerve that connects the eye and brain.
• CT scan - An x-ray machine linked to a computer takes a series of detailed pictures of the head. The patient may receive an injection of a special dye so the brain shows up clearly in the pictures. The pictures can show tumors in the brain.
• MRI - A powerful magnet linked to a computer makes detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures are viewed on a monitor and can also be printed. Sometimes a special dye is injected to help show differences in the tissues of the brain. The pictures can show a tumor or other problem in the brain.

The doctor may ask for other tests:

• Angiogram
• Skull x-ray
• Spinal tap - The doctor may remove a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (the fluid that fills the spaces in and around the brain and spinal cord). This procedure is performed with local anesthesia. The doctor uses a long, thin needle to remove fluid from the spinal column. A spinal tap takes about 30 minutes. 
• Myelogram
• Biopsy can also be done - needle biopsy, stereotactic biopsy and Biopsy at the same time as treatment.

Treatments of Brain Tumor
People with brain tumors have several treatment options. Depending on the tumor type and stage, patients may be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, or chemotherapy. Some patients receive a combination of treatments.
At any stage of disease,
Prevention of Anemia

• Eat a healthy balanced diet and ensure the diet contains good sources of iron, folic acid and vitamin B12.
• Cut down alcohol consumption.
• For strict vegetarians, Vitamin B12 supplements should be taken to avoid deficiency.

When to seek Medical Advice

• As anemia causes a shortage of oxygen, the main symptom is usually chronic tiredness and palpitations.
• Pale appearance.
• Shortness of breath and dizziness.
• Fainting.
• Angina.
• A red, sore tongue and a reduced sense of taste, this is usually only a symptom with folic acid and vitamin B12 deficiency anemia.

16. Wilms Tumour

A Wilms' tumour is a malignant (cancerous) tumour, which develops in the kidney. It develops from specialised cells in the kidney called nephroblasts. You may also hear it called a nephroblastoma. Usually it occurs in only one kidney (unilateral), although occasionally there may be tumours in both kidneys (bilateral). Sometimes the tumour can spread (metastasise) to other parts of the body, such as the lungs or liver. It most often affects children below the age of five and is slightly more common in girls than boys. In most cases there is no known cause for Wilms' tumour, although a small number of children have a genetic tendency. This is usually obvious, either because other members of the family have had Wilms' tumour or because the child has certain growth or development problems that have been present from birth. However, for the majority of children with Wilms' tumour, there is no genetic tendency, nor is there any increased risk in brothers or sisters.

Alternative Names of Wilms' Tumour are: nephroblastoma; Kidney tumor

Complications of Wilms' Tumour

• The tumor may become quite large, but usually remains self-enclosed. Spread of the tumor to the lungs, liver, bone, or brain is the most worrisome complication.
• High blood pressure and kidney damage may occur as the result of the tumor or its treatment.
• Removal of Wilms tumor from both kidneys may affect kidney function.

Causes of Wilms' Tumour

• Wilms tumor is the most common form of childhood kidney cancer. The exact cause of this tumor in most children is unknown.
• A missing iris of the eye (aniridia) is a birth defect that is sometimes associated with Wilms tumor. Other birth defects linked to this type of kidney cancer include certain urinary tract problems and enlargement of one side of the body, a condition called hemihypertrophy.
• It is more common among some siblings and twins, which suggests a possible genetic cause.
• The disease occurs in about 1 out of 200,000 to 250,000 children. It usually strikes when a child is about 3 years old. It rarely develops after age 8.

Signs & Symptoms of Wilms' Tumour

The most common symptom is swelling of the abdomen (tummy). This is usually painless.

Other symptoms may include:

• Nausea and vomiting
• Poor appetite
• Weight loss
• Abdominal pain
• Fever
• Red urine due to blood in the urine
• High blood pressure.

Diagnosis of Wilms' Tumour

Special emphasis is placed on the history and physical exam. The doctor asks if you have a family history of cancer and look for associated birth defects in the child. 

A physical examination reveals an abdominal mass. High blood pressure may also be present.

Blood in the urine occurs in less than 25% of children.

Tests include:

• Abdominal ultrasound
• Abdominal x-ray
• BUN
• Chest x-ray
• Complete blood count (may show anemia)
• Creatinine
• Creatinine clearance
• CT scan of the abdomen
• Intravenous pyelogram
• Urinalysis

Other tests may be required to determine if the tumor has spread.

Treatments of Wilms' Tumour

Treatment usually includes surgery, chemotherapy or radiotherapy, or a combination of these as follows:

Surgery

All children with Wilms' tumour will have surgery to remove the affected kidney. If both your child's kidneys are affected we may need to remove part of both kidneys. However, we will first give your child chemotherapy to shrink the tumour. This will make the surgery easier when it is carried out four to eight weeks later, and will also reduce the need for radiotherapy.

Radiotherapy

Radiotherapy may be used after surgery to destroy any remaining tumour cells. See the Children's Unit booklet called 'Radiotherapy treatment' for more details on this type of treatment.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy is given together with surgery and or radiotherapy to treat the tumour. The type of chemotherapy will vary in intensity and duration according to the stage of the tumour and its appearance under the microscope (histology).

Prevention of Wilms' Tumour

For children with a known high risk of Wilms tumor, screening with ultrasound of the kidneys may be recommended.

When to seek Medical Advice

• Call your doctor if you discover a lump in your child's abdomen, blood in the urine, or other symptoms of Wilms tumor.
• Call your doctor if your child is being treated for this condition and symptoms get worse or new symptoms develop, particularly cough, chest pain, weight loss, or persistent fevers.

17. Bladder Cancer

The bladder is an organ located in the pelvic cavity that stores and discharges urine. Urine is produced by the kidneys, carried to the bladder by the ureters, and discharged from the bladder through the urethra. This is occurs most often in people between the ages of 60 and 79. The disease is more common in men than in women. It is one of the most common forms of cancer to strike men.

In most cases, bladder cancer is caused by external factors. Cigarette smoking and exposure to some carcinogenic agents such as aromatic compounds and chemicals used in industry and elsewhere can lead to bladder cancer.

Causes of Bladder Cancer

• A diet that is high in saturated fat is a cause of bladder cancer
• Exposure to certain chemicals in the workplace is another cause of Bladder cancer. These include chemicals previously used in dye factories, rubber, gasworks, plastics, paints and in other chemical industries.
• Gender, It is observed that males develop bladder cancer more frequently than females
• People who are paralysed have more bladder infections and a higher risk of getting bladder cancer
• People with a family history of bladder cancer or who are older, white or male have a higher risk.
• Race, People of Caucasians race develop the disease more frequently than others
• Repeated urinary infections and kidney or bladder stones have been linked with bladder cancer.
• Smoking is a major risk factor for bladder cancer.
• Untreated infection with a parasite called schistosoma is a major cause of bladder cancer in people living in developing countries.

Signs & Symptoms of Bladder CancerGenerally the first sign is blood in the urine. Other symptoms include

• A frequent urge to urinate
• Pain when you urinate
• Low back pain

These symptoms are not sure signs of bladder cancer. Infections, benign tumors, bladder stones or other problems also can cause these symptoms. There may be frequent urination, stinging and pain across the pubic bone or exactly the same symptoms as in an ordinary bladder infection.

Diagnosis of Bladder Cancer

• Blood tests: Samples of your blood will be taken to check your general health.
• Cystoscopy: The doctor uses a thin, lighted tube, called a cystoscope, to look directly into the bladder. The doctor inserts the cystoscope into the bladder through the urethra to examine the lining of the bladder.
• Intravenous pyelogram: The doctor injects dye into a blood vessel. The dye collects in the urine, making the bladder show up on x-rays.
• Physical exam: The physical exam may include a rectal or vaginal exam.
• Ultrasound scans or X-rays of the whole urinary tract are taken - an intravenous urogram.
• Urine tests: The laboratory checks the urine for blood, cancer cells and other signs of disease.

Treatments of Bladder Cancer
Treatments for bladder cancer include

• Surgery
• Radiation
• Chemotherapy and biologic therapy. Biologic therapy, or immunotherapy, boosts your body's own ability to fight cancer.

Treatment will differ according to the spread of the cancer. Treatment is usually a choice between radiation treatments or the total surgical removal of the bladder.

When to seek Medical AdviceIf you develop any serious symptoms it's important to get them checked by your doctor.

18.Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer is a disease in which cancer develops in the prostate, a gland in the male reproductive system.
As the name suggests, prostate cancer develops from cells of the prostate gland. The prostate gland is located in the pelvis, below the bladder, above the urethral sphincter and the penis, and in front of the rectum in men. The prostate gland is about the size of a walnut. It is made up of glandular tissue and muscle fibers that surround a portion of the urethra. It is found only in men, and produces some of the seminal fluid, which protects and nourishes sperm cells. Most prostate cancers grow very slowly and never cause symptoms or spread.
As prostate cancer grows, it may spread to the interior of the gland, to tissues near the prostate, to sac-like structures attached to the prostate (seminal vesicles), and to distant parts of the body (e.g., bones, liver, and lungs). Prostate cancer confined to the gland often is treated successfully.
Recurrent Prostate Cancer
Recurrent prostate cancer is cancer that has recurred (come back) after it has been treated. Recurrent prostate cancer may come back in the prostate or in another part of the body.
Types of Prostate Cancer
Prostate tissues contain several types of cells. Cancer can develop in each of these different types of tissues, but the most common form of prostate cancer develops within the glandular cells. This type of cancer is known in medical terms as adenocarcinoma. Usually, adenocarcinoma develops at the surface of the prostate and can be easily detected trough a digital rectal examination.
There are two other forms of prostate cancer i.e. Leiomyosarcoma and Rhabdomyosarcoma that are rarer and develop in the surrounding tissues of the gland.

Causes & Risk Factors of Prostate Cancer
Prostate cancer is the most common non-skin cancer, affecting 1 in 6 men. The older you are, the more likely you are to be diagnosed with prostate cancer. Besides being male, there are other factors, such as age, race, and family history that may contribute to the risk.
Some research suggests that high levels of testosterone may increase a man's risk of prostate cancer. The difference between racial groups in prostate cancer risk could be related to high testosterone levels, but it also could result from diet or other lifestyle factors.
These causes or risk factors of prostate cancer include:

1. Age: The greatest risk factor for prostate cancer is age. This risk increases significantly after the age of 50 in white men who have no family history of the disease and after the age of 40 in black men and men who have a close relative with prostate cancer.
2. Race: Prostate cancer occurs about 60% more often in African American men than in white American men and when diagnosed is more likely to be advanced.
3. Diet: Research also suggests high dietary fat may be a contributing factor prostate cancer. The disease is much more common in countries where meat and dairy products are dietary staples, compared to countries where the basic diet consists of rice, soybean products, and vegetables.
4. Lifestyle: The risk of prostate cancer may be reduced by getting regular exercise and maintaining optimal weight.
5. Family history: The risk for developing prostate cancer is higher if there is a family history of prostate cancer among male members of the family. The risk doubles if a man's father had the disease, and if a brother had it, the risk triples
6. Medical conditions: The risk for developing prostate cancer is higher when the patient suffers from a medical condition called prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN).
7. Occupation:  Rubber industry and cadmium workers have more possibility of having prostate cancer.

Signs & Symptoms of Prostate Cancer
When prostate cancer is in the early stages, there are no noticeable symptoms. However, there are men that can experience symptoms that might indicate the presence of prostate cancer. But prostate cancer can cause any of these problems:

• A need to urinate frequently, especially at night;
• Difficulty starting urination or holding back urine;
• Inability to urinate;
• Weak or interrupted flow of urine;
• Painful or burning urination; 
• Difficulty in having an erection; 
• Painful ejaculation; 
• Blood in urine or semen; or 
• Frequent pain or stiffness in the lower back, hips, or upper thighs.
• Loss of appetite and weight

Any of these symptoms may be caused by cancer or by other, less serious health problems, such as BPH or an infection. A man who has symptoms like these should see his doctor or an urologist.
Complications of Prostate CancerComplications from prostate cancer are related to both the disease and its treatment. One of the biggest fears of many men who have prostate cancer is that treatment may leave them incontinent or impotent.
The typical complications of prostate cancer and its treatments include:

1. Depression: Many men may develop feelings of depression after a diagnosis of prostate cancer or after trying to cope with the side effects of treatment. These feelings may last for only a short time, they may come and go, or they may linger for weeks or even months.
2. Erectile dysfunction (ED) or impotence: Like incontinence, ED can be a result of prostate cancer or its treatment, including surgery, radiation or hormone treatments.
3. Pain: Although early-stage prostate cancer typically isn't painful, once it's spread to bones, it may produce pain, which can be intense. Not all people with cancer that has spread to bones have pain. Pain can be controlled, and there's no reason a person has to suffer with intense pain.
4. Spread of cancer: Prostate cancer can spread to nearby organs and bones and can be life-threatening.
5. Urinary incontinence: Both prostate cancer and its treatment can cause incontinence. Some men experience incontinence after surgery to remove the prostate.

Stages of Prostate Cancer
Once prostate cancer has been diagnosed, more tests are done to find out the size and location of the cancer, and if the cancer has metastasized (spread) beyond the prostate. This process is called staging. Knowing the stage of the cancer is important for planning the right treatment.
Several systems are used to stage prostate cancer. The most common are the ABCD system and the TNM system.

• Stage A: The cancer is confined to the gland. In this stage, the tumor cannot be detected through a digital rectal examination and is discovered by chance when the patient undergoes surgery for a different reason such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH).
• Stage B: The cancer reaches an advanced form but is still confined to the prostate. It is now big enough to be detected by DRE or ultrasound imaging
• Stage C: The cancer spreads outside the prostate. In this stage, it might affect the seminal vesicles, but has not spread to the adjacent lymph nodes from the pelvic area.
• Stage D: The cancer spreads beyond the seminal vesicles and might affect the lymph nodes, or the pelvic muscles and organs.

TNM SystemThe most widely used system in the United States for staging prostate cancer is called the TNM System. It describes the extent of the primary tumor (T stage), the absence or presence of spread to nearby lymph nodes (N stage) and the absence or presence of distant spread, or metastasis (M stage) to other areas of the body.
The TNM system is more specific in how it categorizes prostate cancer and is more widely used.
T = Tumor size

• T1: Clinically unapparent tumor, neither detected by DRE nor visible by imaging
  • T1a: Incidental histologic finding; <5% of tissue resected during TURP
  • T1b: Incidental histologic finding; >5% of tissue resected during TURP  
  • T1c: Tumor identified by needle biopsy due to elevated PSA  
• T2: Confined within the prostate (detectable by DRE, not visible on TRUS) 
  • T2a: Tumor involves half of the lobe or less
  • T2b: Tumor involves more than one half of one lobe but not both lobes
  • T2c: Tumor involves both lobes
• T3: Tumor extends through the prostate capsule but has not spread to other organs 
  • T3a: Unilateral extracapsular extension
  • T3b: Bilateral extracapsular extension
  • T3c: Tumor invades seminal vesicle(s) 

• T4: Tumor is fixed or invades adjacent structures other than seminal vesicles 
  o T4a: Tumor invades bladder neck and/or external sphincter and/or rectum 
  o T4b: Tumor invades levator muscles and/or is fixed to pelvic wall 

N = Nodes (extend of spread to the lymph nodes)

• N0: Cancer has not spread to any lymph nodes.
• N1: Cancer has spread to a single regional lymph node (inside the pelvis) and is not larger than 2 centimeters (  inch).
• N2: Cancer has spread to one or more regional lymph nodes and is larger than 2 centimeters (  inch), but not larger than 5 centimeters (2 inches).
• N3: Cancer has spread to a lymph node and is larger than 5 centimeters (2 inches).

M = Metastasis (extent of spread to other parts of the body)

• M0: The cancer has not metastasized (spread) beyond the regional lymph nodes.
• M1: The cancer has metastasized to distant lymph nodes (outside of the pelvis), bones, or other distant organs such as lungs, liver, or brain.

Diagnosis & Medical Tests of Prostate Cancer
Diagnosis of Prostate Cancer

1. Anamnesis (a personal medical history) : The first step in establishing a diagnosis is a detailed and complete medical review of past health problems, and medical family history
2. Physical examination : The next step is a rectal examination of the prostate. This type of physical examination, called Digital Rectal Exam (DRE), is one of the simplest and oldest screening tests for prostate cancer. During this examination, the doctor (usually a urologist) inserts one finger into the rectum to check the size of the prostate or any possible tissue growth.

Tests of Prostate Cancer

• Prostate-specific Antigen: One of the blood tests performed for diagnosing prostate cancer is PSA (prostate-specific antigen) test. Prostate-specific antigen is a glycoprotein produced by the prostate's epithelial cells that can be measured in the blood. However, the level of PSAs is not a direct indicator of prostate cancer, but can offer important information about possible modifications to the prostate tissue.
• CT scan: The CT scan is an advanced x-ray procedure that produces a more detailed cross-sectional image of the body. A doctor can check for swollen or enlarged lymph nodes. This procedure is used to establish whether or not the prostate cancer spread to adjacent areas or organs, or, after the treatment to monitor for a possible relapse. 
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) : MRI is an advanced technique that uses radio waves, strong magnets and a contrast substance to outline the image of a targeted area of the body. MRI is a useful procedure to visualize the prostate and identify any abnormal tissue growth. 
• ProstaScintT scan : ProstaScint scan is a medical procedure that can help determine if the cancer spread beyond the prostate. In order to perform this scan, the patient is injected with a low level of radioactive agent that is absorbed by the prostate cells in the body. This test is not recommended in men that have just been diagnosed with prostate cancer.
• Core needle biopsy : A biopsy is a medical procedure that removes a certain amount of tissue for microscopic investigation. One of the most common types of biopsy used to diagnose prostate cancer is a core needle biopsy. This procedure is performed using a transrectal ultrasound for a better visualization of the prostate gland. It usually last between 15 and 35 minutes and is performed under local anesthesia. During this procedure, the doctor inserts a special instrument called a biopsy gun with a thin needle inside, through the rectum wall and into the prostate. This needle will help remove a cylinder shape sample of prostate tissue. 
• Cystoscopy or Bladder Scope Test : Cystoscopy, also called a cystourethroscopy or a bladder scope, measures the health of the urethra and bladder. It is used to diagnose disease or pain.

Myths about Prostate Cancer
A lot of people think that they know at least the basics about prostate cancer, and some people believe that they really have the essentials of prostate cancer down - even though they're not doctors or cancer experts. But people's beliefs about prostate cancer and cancer in general, are often flat out wrong. Check out the following myths about prostate cancer and the accompanying facts
Myth: Prostate cancer is solely an elderly man's disease
Fact: The reality is that older men do have a greater risk for prostate cancer, but younger men can also develop the disease.
Myth: If you have cancer, you'll know because of the symptoms
Fact: Some forms of early cancer have symptoms, but prostate cancer, especially in its early stages, usually has no symptoms at all.
Myth: Nobody dies of prostate cancer
Fact: It's the second leading cancer killer for men
Myth: Surgery or Radiation is always best treatmentFact: To determine which treatment is best, each individual situation needs to be considered, including the man's age, how advanced his cancer is, his attitude about side effects and quality of life issues, and other factors.
Myth: Patients of Prostate cancer become permanently disabled
Fact: Many men continue to work after being treated for prostate cancer, while some take four to six weeks off (or longer) to recover from surgery or other treatments.
Myth: Impotence always follows Treatment
Fact: Half of all men who receive treatment for prostate cancer will experience some impotence, even though this is temporarily. However, some men have few or no problems.

Treatments of Prostate Cancer
Once prostate cancer is diagnosed, the next step is a treatment plan. The prostate cancer treatment is established according to several factors such as: the cancer stage and grade, the patient's age and expected life span, and the general health state. Prostate cancer can be treated with surgery, radiation therapy, hormone therapy, occasionally chemotherapy, proton therapy, or some combination of these.
There are two main types of cancer treatment:

1. Local therapy:  A type of treatment that either removes or destroys the cancer cells.
2. Systemic therapy: A treatment that involves medication that is administrated in various ways such as orally or intravenously.

Surgery: This is a local type of therapy and is recommended in early stages of cancer that can remove the whole prostate, prostatectomy, or part of the prostate transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP). There are three types of prostatectomies:

1. Radical retropubic prostatectomy is a common medical procedure where the entire prostate and adjacent affected lymph nodes are removed through an abdominal incision.
2. Radical perineal prostatectomy is a rare medical procedure where the prostate is removed through a small incision cut between the scrotum and the anus. This type of prostatectomy is less invasive and the patient recovers faster.
3. Laparoscopic prostatectomy: During this procedure the prostate and affected lymph nodes are removed through a small abdominal incision.

Transurethral resection of the prostate (TURP) is a type of surgery that is a palliative treatment approach (relieves the symptoms, but does not cure). This surgery is usually performed for those patients that have urinary problems (the urine flow is blocked by the size of the tumor).
Radiation TherapyRadiotherapy is another local type of cancer treatment that uses high-energy rays or particles to destroy cancerous cells. It is used as a treatment option for early stages of cancer, and for advanced stages of cancer
Chemotherapy
Chemotherapy is not a common treatment option for prostate cancer. However, it is used for advanced forms or recurrent cancer that did not respond to other types of treatment.
Hormone Therapy
Hormone therapy is also known as androgen deprivation or suppression therapy and focuses on reducing the level of male hormones in the body. The majority of prostate cancer cases are hormone sensitive because tumors require male hormones to grow. A reduced level of androgen (male hormone) causes the prostate to shrink and have a slower growth process. This type of treatment is effective in treating early cancer stages and high grade tumors.
When to seek medical adviceIf you have difficulties with urination, see your doctor. This condition doesn't always relate to prostate cancer, but it can be a sign of prostate-related problems.
If you're a man older than 50, you may want to see your doctor to discuss beginning prostate cancer screening.

19. Cervical Cancer

What Is Cervical Cancer?
The cervix is part of a woman's reproductive system. It is the lower part of the uterus (womb). The uterus is the hollow, pear-shaped organ where a baby grows during a woman's pregnancy. The cervix forms a canal that opens into the vagina (birth canal), which leads to the outside of the body. Cancer of the cervix (also known as cervical cancer) begins in the lining of the cervix. Cervical cancers do not form suddenly. This condition usually develops over time. Normal cervical cells gradually develop pre-cancerous changes that turn into cancer. Doctors use several terms to describe these pre-cancerous changes, including cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), squamous intraepithelial lesion (SIL), and dysplasia.

Cancer of the cervix is the second most common cancer in women worldwide and is a leading cause of cancer-related death in women in underdeveloped countries. Most (80-90%) invasive cervical cancer develops in flat, scaly surface cells that line the cervix (called squamous cell carcinomas). Approximately 10-15% of cases develop in glandular surface cells (called adenocarcinomas).

Causes of Cervical Cancer
The cause of cervical cancer is unknown. Most scientific studies have found that human papillomavirus (HPV) infection is responsible for virtually all cases of cervical cancer.

• Human papillomavirus infection
• Multiple sexual partners
• Sexual intercourse at a young age
• Poor penile hygiene of the partner
• Herpes virus hominis type II infection
• A weak immune system
• Smoking
• Multiple pregnancies
• Have HIV

Sign & Symptoms of Cervical Cancer
Early cervical cancer is often asymptomatic (does not produce symptoms). In women who receive regular screening, the first sign of the disease is usually an abnormal Pap test result. Symptoms that may occur include the following:

• Abnormal vaginal bleeding (e.g., spotting after sexual intercourse, bleeding between menstrual periods, increased menstrual bleeding)
• Abnormal (yellow, odorous) vaginal discharge
• Low back pain
• Painful sexual intercourse (dyspareunia)
• Painful urination (dysuria)

Cervical cancer that has spread (metastasized) to other organs may cause constipation, blood in the urine (hematuria), abnormal opening in the cervix (fistula), and ureteral obstruction (blockage in the tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder).

Diagnosis of Cervical Cancer
If the Pap test finds serious changes in the cells of the cervix, the doctor will suggest more powerful tests such as a colposcopy. Diagnosis is made by doing a biopsy of the cervix, or a magnified visual inspection of the cervix aided by using an acetic acid (e.g. vinegar) solution to highlight abnormal cells on the surface of the cervix. . In this procedure, the doctor uses a tool called a colposcope to see the cells of the vagina and cervix in detail.

If there are still some concerns of precancerous cells, the doctor may use the LUMA Cervical Imaging System. The doctor uses this device right after a colposcopy. The colors and patterns on the map help the doctor tell between healthy tissue and tissue that might be diseased.

Tests for Women with abnormal Cervix
Because the Pap test is a screening test rather than a diagnostic test, if you have an abnormal result, you will need to have other tests colposcopy and biopsy etc.

• Colposcopy: If certain symptoms suggest cancer or if the Pap test shows abnormal cells, you will need to have an additional test called a colposcopy. In this procedure you will lie on the exam table as you do with a pelvic exam. A speculum is placed in the vagina to expose the cervix. The doctor will use the colposcope to examine the cervix.
• Cervical biopsies: Several types of biopsies are used to diagnose cervical precancers and cancers.
• Colposcopic biopsy: For this type of biopsy, a doctor first examines the cervix with a colposcope to find the abnormal areas. Using a biopsy forceps, he or she will remove a small section of the abnormal area on the surface of the cervix. The abnormal area of cervix around 1/8-inch is removed.
• Endocervical curettage: This procedure is usually done at the same time as the colposcopic biopsy. A narrow instrument is inserted into the endocervical canal. Some of the tissue lining the endocervical canal is removed by scraping with the curette.
• Conization: In this procedure, the doctor removes a cone-shaped piece of tissue from the cervix.
• LEEP (LLETZ): The tissue is removed with a thin wire loop that is heated by electrical current and acts as a scalpel.
• Cold knife cone biopsy: A surgical scalpel or a laser as a scalpel is used rather than a heated wire to remove tissue.

Preventions for Cervical Cancer Only some women with pre-cancerous changes of the cervix will develop cancer. This process usually takes several years but sometimes can happen in less than a year. For most women, pre-cancerous cells will remain unchanged and go away without any treatment. But if these precancers are treated, almost all true cancers can be prevented.

• By getting regular Pap tests and pelvic exams, your health care provider can find and treat the changing cells before they turn into cancer.
• By avoiding exposure to HPV
• Limiting your number of sexual partners
• HPV can spread through skin-to-skin contact with any infected part of the body, but using a condom every time you have sex can significantly reduce your risk of contracting HPV. Condoms provide some protection; it can reduce the infection rate by about 70%.
• Vaccines have been developed that can protect women from HPV infections. Although the vaccine could prevent up to 70 percent of cervical cancer cases, it can't prevent infection with every virus that causes cervical cancer. Routine Pap tests to screen for cervical cancer remain important.

Treatments of Cervical Caner
Pre-invasive stage
Treatment of cervical cancer in the pre-invasive stage, when it has affected only the outer layer of the lining of the cervix, may include:

• Conization: This simple surgery involves removing with a scalpel a cone-shaped piece of cervical tissue where the abnormality is found.
• Laser surgery: This operation uses a narrow beam of intense light to kill cancerous and precancerous cells.
• Loop electrosurgical excision procedure (LEEP): This technique uses a wire loop to pass electrical current, which cuts like a surgeon's knife and remove cells from the mouth of the cervix.
• Cryosurgery: This technique involves freezing and killing cancerous and precancerous cells.
• Hysterectomy: This major surgery involves removal of the cancerous and precancerous areas, the cervix and the uterus.

Invasive stage
Many women are treated successfully for invasive cervical cancer and live full, productive lives. Treatment may involve:

• Hysterectomy: Surgery is usually recommended for younger women because it often can preserve one or both ovaries along with their estrogen production, which is important in maintaining bone strength.
• Radical trachelectomy: Women with early-stage cervical cancer may be able to preserve their fertility by having this surgical procedure, which involves removing the cervix and the lower part of the uterus.
• Radiation: High-energy rays shrink tumors by killing the cancer cells. The radiation destroys the ability of cancer cells to reproduce.

These treatments are almost always effective in destroying precancers and preventing them from developing into true cancers. You will need follow-up exams to make sure that the abnormality does not come back. For further clarity about the Cervical Cancer please visit your consultant.

20. Breast Cancer

Breast cancer is cancer of breast tissue. It is the most common form of cancer in females, affecting approximately 10% of all women at some stage of their life in the Western world. Breast cancer is a malignant tumor that has developed from cells of the breast. A malignant tumor is a group of cancer cells that may invade surrounding tissues or spread (metastasize) to distant areas of the body. The disease occurs almost entirely in women, but men can get it, too.

Incidence increases with age and risk factors include a family history of breast cancer, late menopause, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension.

Symptoms
Initial symptoms may include a small painless lump, thick or dimpled skin, or nipple retraction.

Common symptoms of breast cancer include:

• A change in how the breast or nipple feels
  • A lump or thickening in or near the breast or in the underarm area
  • Nipple tenderness

• A change in how the breast or nipple looks
  • A change in the size or shape of the breast
  • A nipple turned inward into the breast
  • The skin of the breast, areola, or nipple may be scaly, red, or swollen. It may have ridges or pitting so that it looks like the skin of an orange.

• Nipple discharge (fluid)
  • Early breast cancer usually does not cause pain. Still, a woman should see her health care provider about breast pain or any other symptom that does not go away. Most often, these symptoms are not due to cancer. Other health problems may also cause them. Any woman with these symptoms should tell her doctor so that problems can be diagnosed and treated as early as possible.

Types of Breast Cancers
It is important to understand some of the key words used to describe different types of breast cancer. It is not unusual for a single breast tumor to be a combination of these types and to have a mixture of invasive and in situ cancer.

Nearly all breast cancers start in the ducts or lobules of the breast. Because this is glandular tissue, they are called adenocarcinomas, a term applied to cancers of glandular tissue anywhere in the body.

The 2 main types of breast adenocarcinomas are In Situ or Ductal carcinomas and Invasive or Lobular carcinomas.

In situ Cancer
This term is used for the early stage of cancer, when it is confined to the immediate area where it began. Cancer that is in situ or "in its original position" has not spread to other areas of the body. In situ cancer is less aggressive than invasive cancer. Specifically in breast cancer, in situ means that the cancer remains confined to ducts or lobules. It has not invaded surrounding tissues in the breast nor spread to other organs in the body.

• Ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS): Ductal carcinoma in situ also known as intraductal carcinoma is the most common type of non-invasive breast cancer. DCIS means that the cancer cells are inside the ducts but have not spread through the walls of the ducts into the surrounding breast tissue.
• Lobular carcinoma in situ (LCIS): It begins in the milk-producing glands but does not grow through the wall of the lobules. Most breast cancer specialists think that LCIS itself does not become an invasive cancer very often, but women with this condition do have a higher risk of developing an invasive breast cancer in the same breast or in the opposite breast.

Invasive Cancer
Invasive cancer is that Cancer which has spread beyond the area where it first developed to involve adjacent tissues. For example, invasive breast cancers develop in milk glands (lobules) or milk passages (ducts) and spread to the nearby fatty breast tissue. Some invasive cancers spread to distant areas of the body (metastasize), but others do not.

• Invasive (or infiltrating) ductal carcinoma (IDC): This is the most common breast cancer. It starts in a milk passage, or duct, of the breast, has broken through the wall of the duct, and invaded the fatty tissue of the breast.
• Invasive (or infiltrating) lobular carcinoma (ILC): Invasive lobular carcinoma starts in the milk-producing glands, or lobules. Similar to IDC, it also can spread (metastasize) to other parts of the body.

Treatment
The main treatments for breast cancer are:

• Surgery
• Radiotherapy
• Hormone therapy
• Chemotherapy
• Biological treatments

Early detection through regular breast self-exams and a regular program of mammography and physical exams shows excellent results in combating it.